The  Psychology  of  Handling 
Men  in  the  Army 


by 


JOSEPH  PETERSON,  Ph.  D 

Asst.  Professor  of  Psychology 

University  of  Minnesota 

and 

QUENTIN  J.  DAVID,  LL.  B. 
Lieutenant  in  A.  E.  F.,  France 


The  manuscript  of  this  book  was  submitted  to  the  War  Department 

and    permission    for   its    publication    for    distribution    among 

Army   officers  and   soldiers  was   obtained   under  date 

of  May  14,  1918.        The    authors,    however   are 

solely  responsible  both  for  the  general 

subject     matter    and    for     the 

specific    content   of   the 

book. 


THE  FERINE  BOOK  COMPANY, 
MINNEAPOLIS. 


P4- 


Copyright 

THE  FERINE  BOOK  COMPANY, 
MINNEAPOLIS. 


9* 


PREFACE 

This  little  book  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  treatise  on 
psychology;  its  purpose  is  frankly  a  practical  one,  and 
the  plan  out  of  which  the  work  has  grown  originated  in 
the  army  camps.  The  experience  of  the  junior  author 
(Lieut.  David)  in  different  training  camps  in  which  men 
are  being  prepared  for  the  various  duties  of  warfare 
led  him  to  see  the  need,  as  he  interpreted  the  situation, 
of  a  simple,  rather  practical  presentation  of  the  under- 
lying psychological  principles  of  handling  men,  one  which 
should  be  especially  designed  to  aid  the  newly  commis- 
sioned and  the  non-commissioned  officer.  Consultation 
with  various  experienced  army  officers  and  a  number  of 
prominent  citizens  strengthened  his  conviction  that  a  little 
book  of  this  kind  would  render  very  real  service  in  the 
present  crisis,  which  has  forced  war  upon  us  on  so  large 
a  scale  that  officers  must  be  prepared  for  their  important 
duties  in  a  comparatively  short  length  of  time. 

The  field  covered  has  been  defined  in  general  by  what 
we  have  regarded  as  of  most  practical  importance  in 
view  of  present  conditions.  Since  this  is  the  first  book 
of  which  we  know  that  deals  entirely  with  the  psycho- 
logical aspects  of  the  training  and  handling  of  men  in  the 
army,  it  is  necessarily  incomplete  and  tentative  in  many 
respects,  but  it  was  thought  best  to  begin  with  the  more 
general  and  probably  the  most  important  aspects  of  the 
subject  and  to  leave  for  later  special  studies  and  develop- 
ments the  problems  relating  to  various  particular  phases 
of  the  field,  most  of  which  will  have  to  be  worked  out 
under  experimental  conditions  for  which  special  provi- 
sion is  necessary. 

The  book  is  not  a  mere  theoretical  discussion  based 
on  certain  established  psychological  principles  useful  to 

383078 


ii  PREFACE 

the  trainer  and  leader  of  men,  but  it  has  been  given  shape 
and  direction  largely  by  the  actual  experiences  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  army  officers  who  have  kindly  aided 
us  in  various  ways,  experiences  in  some  cases  extending 
over  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years.  The  general 
plan  has  been  to  have  each  chapter,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, made  up  of  three  parts:  the  first  by  the  junior 
author,  an  army  officer,  in  a  popular  and  somewhat  per- 
sonal style,  to  influence  the  young  officers  in  the  principles 
to  be  discussed ;  the  second  by  the  senior  author  on  the 
psychological  bases  of  the  subject  considered,  this  to  con- 
stitute the  main  part  of  the  chapter ;  and  part  three  to  em- 
body phases  of  more  immediate  application  and  also  quo- 
tations, experiences  and  opinions  of  army  officers  which 
would  be  useful  to  those  persons  for  whom  the  book  is 
especially  prepared.  Some  of  the  chapters,  however, 
consist  of  only  two  parts. 

In  putting  out  this  work  we  have  been  guided  by  the 
conviction,  strengthened  by  many  aspects  of  the  present 
world  conflict,  that  the  psychological  aspect  of  war  is  far 
more  important  than  it  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  book  may  be  serviceable  and  sugges- 
tive in  the  training  and  in  the  handling  of  men,  and  that  it 
may  prove  to  be  useful  and  stimulating  to  various  army 
men  not  included  in  the  class  for  which  it  has  been  es- 
pecially prepared.  To  this  end  we  shall  welcome  most 
cordially  further  suggestions  and  specific  criticisms  on 
any  part  of  the  work,  which  may  be  of  value  toward 
making  later  editions  more  useful.  Communications  on 
such  matters  should  be  addressed  to  the  senior  author, 
and  they  will  receive  mose  careful  consideration. 

Finally,  without  in  any  way  making  others  than  our- 
selves responsible  for  shortcomings  or  errors  in  the 
chapters  that  follow,  we  wish  to  express  our  hearty 
appreciation  to  the  War  Department  for  detailing  Lieut. 
David  to  the  University  of  Minnesota  for  thirty  days  to 


PREFACE  Hi 

co-operate  in  this  work;  and  to  the  following  officers, 
who  directly  or  indirectly  gave  us  valuable  assistance  at 
a  time  and  under  conditions  that  drained  heavily  on  their 
own  energy: 

Major  General  George  Bell,  Jr. 

Brigadier  Generals  S.  M.  Foote  and  Robert  N.  Getty. 

Colonel  H.  B.  Crosby. 

Lieutenant  Colonel  Chas.  E.  Kilbourne. 

Majors  W.  C.  Baker  and  E.  S.  Adams. 

Captain  S.  Y.  Britt,  Professor  of  Military  Science 
and  Tactics  in  the  University^  of  Minnesota. 

First  Lieutenants  John  Ayotte,  Thomas  G.  Bond. 
James  T.  Brazlton  and  James  E.  Allison. 

JOSEPH  PETERSON. 
QUENTIN  J.  DAVID. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  Page 

Preface  -     i 

I.     Introduction    -  1 

II.     Competition  -  18 

III.  Play                   -  -      38 

IV.  Teamplay     -  -  51 
V.     Leadership  -      71 

VI.     Principles  of  Learning                            -  -  88 

VII.     Habit  and  Discipline  -     110 

VIII.     Loyalty         ------  125 

Index       -------  143 


The  Psychology  of  Handling 
Men  in  the  Army 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 
i 

The  big  world  game  before  the  war  was  commerce 
and  in  this  game  the  United  States  led  the  way  in  many 
respects.  She  has  been  the  life  of  the  "party",  as  it 
were,  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Her  gigantic  com- 
mercial enterprises  and  organizations  have  evoked  the 
interest  and  admiration  of  all  foreign  nations.  However, 
her  success  in  business  has  been  measured  by  the  in- 
dividual successes  of  a  few  captains  of  industry.  The 
point  is  that  we  have  all  worked  and  built  to  satisfy  our 
individual  needs  and  desires.  There  has  been  no  general 
plan,  no  uniformity,  no  element  in  our  commercial  ef- 
forts that  tended  towards  national  unity;  and  great 
manufacturing  plants,  efficient  railroads,  vast  stretches 
of  cultivated  lands  do  not  make  a  great  nation.  A 
nation's  strength,  other  things  equal,  is  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  co-operation  among  its  people,  and 
that  nation  is  the  strongest,  and  can  stand  the  severest 
tests  which  has  the  greatest  amount  of  teamplay. 

Popular  opinion  labored  at  first  under  the  delusion 
that  we  can  transform  over  night,  as  it  were,  our  accom- 
plishments of  yesterday  into  the  sinews  of  warfare,  and 
this  opinion  was  strengthened  to  a  great  extent  by  our 
physical  accomplishments  since  entering  the  war.  Peo- 
ple pointed  with  no  small  degree  of  confidence  and  pride 
to  our  millions  of  able-bodied  young  men  in  the  draft, 

1 


2  -HANDLING  WBtf  IN  THE  ARMY 

whom  they  supposed  we  could  readily  equip  for  actual 
warfare  against  the  well-disciplined  German  soldiers. 
But  the  leaders  among  military  men  agree,  and  past  his- 
tory and  the  present  European  struggle  have  proved, 
that  while  nations  can  command  men  and  arms  and  can 
purchase  munition  plants,  the  most  important  factors  in 
a  successful  army — spirit  and  discipline — can  not  be 
handed  to  an  army  like  some  concrete  thing,  but  must  be 
developed  through  efficient  and  long  training. 

Major  General  George  Bell,  Jr.,  in  a  valued  letter*  to 
the  senior  author,  emphasizes  the  importance  and  neces- 
sity of  thorough  and  efficient  training  of  the  men  of  the 
army,  in  the  following  words :  "In  the  first  place,  men 
must  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  safety  of 
national  existence  is  dependent  to  a  large  measure  upon 
the  military  and  naval  forces  being  able  to  maintain  that 
existence  against  external  attack.  For  a  military  and 
naval  force  to  be  efficient,  it  must  be  so  organized  and 
disciplined  that  it  can  be  handled  by  its  commander  ex- 
actly as  he  desires,  in  conformity  with  the  general  plan 
of  the  campaign.  This  means  that  each  individual  must 
respond  instantaneously  to  orders.  Such  a  response  can 
only  be  obtained  where  men  instantly  and  willingly  sur- 
render their  personal  inclinations  for  the  welfare  of  the 
organization  to  which  they  belong,  the  Army  and  the 
Government.  This  is  the  fundamental  form  of  discipline. 
Men  do  not  realize  until  they  have  actually  fought,  the 
imperative  necessity  of  instantaneous,  willing  and  thor^ 
ough  discipline.  A  recent  example  of  this  truth  is  to  be 
found  in  the  Canadian  forces  which,  through  their  lack 
of  discipline,  suffered  totally  unnecessary  losses — losses 
so  great  that  they  quickly  awoke  to  the  realization  of  the 
necessity  for  discipline,  with  the  result  that  today  Cana- 
dians are  quite  as  well  trained,  or  disciplined,  as  any 
other  part  of  the  British  army." 

*Dated  Feb.  8,  1918. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

While  the  people  of  the  nation  at  first  had  their  inter- 
est centered  upon  the  kind  and  the  number  of  rifles,  ma- 
chine guns,  etc.,  that  our  army  is  equipped  with,  and  the 
spotlight  of  the  newspaper  publicity  played  steadily  upon 
this  feature  of  our  preparations  (matters  important 
enough  in  themselves),  comparatively  little  was  said 
about  the  training  our  men  are  receiving.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  men  who  are  drafted  into  the  United  States 
army  are  receiving  good  training  considering  the  shortness 
of  the  time  available.  However,  the  present  crisis  neces- 
sitates not  only  good  training,  but,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  time  element,  the  taking  of  every  possible 
step  to  expedite  training  under  our  present  system.  Mili- 
tary men  early  pointed  out  the  peril  of  a  lack  of  training. 
We  were  handicapped  at  the  beginning  by  reason  of  the 
fact  that  our  citizens  have  not  had  the  years  of  training 
and  discipline  that  those  of  Germany,  France,  and  other 
European  nations  receive.  Today  millions  of  our  citi-« 
zens  are  leaving  the  office,  the  bench,  the  farm  and  the 
factory  to  take  up  the  pursuit  of  warfare.  The  process 
is  not  only  a  great  transition  that  changes  the  men's 
modes  of  living,  their  habits  and  even  their  point  of  view, 
but  it  must  also  be  a  sudden  transition ;  they  must  quick- 
ly take  on  their  new  duties  if  our  armies  are  to  arrive  in 
time  to  bolster  up  weakened  France,  and  perhaps  take 
over  the  brunt  of  the  war. 

The  men  who  are  entering  the  army  today  are  dif- « 
f erent  as  a  class  from  those  who  compose  the  bulk  of  the 
army  in  peace  times.  In  times  of  peace  our  army  has 
not  as  a  rule  attracted  the  most  energetic,  resourceful 
young  men  into  its  ranks,  excepting,  of  course,  the  com- 
missioned personnel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  best  man- 
hood of  the  nation  is  being  drafted  into  our  present 
armies ;  that  is  to  say,  the  native  ability  of  men  now 
entering  the  army  is  of  a  higher  type  than  we  have  had 
in  peace  times.  This  fact  and  the  increased  demands  for 


4  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

expediting  the  process  of  training  make  it  necessary  that 
additional  attention  be  directed  to  the  methods  of  train- 
ing, both  to  save  as  much  time  as  possible  in  safety,  and 
also  to  take  into  account  the  individualities  of  the  men 
entering  the  army  from  all  walks  of  life. 

The  problem  the  War  Department  has  faced  since 
our  entrance  into  this  war  has  been  and  will  be  that  of 
teaching  the  drafted  men  the  greatest  possible  amount 
of   soldiering   within  the   short  period  of   possibly  six 
months.     Not  only  will  the  lives  of  the  men  themselves 
depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  training  they  re- 
ceive, but   the  outcome  of   this  war   will  probably  be 
determined  by  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  armies  in- 
volved.    So  it  becomes  incumbent  upon  the  directors  of 
military  training  to   leave   no  stone  unturned  in  their 
search  for  those  methods  and  means  in  military  training 
which  will  produce  the  quickest  and  most  efficient  results. 
These  results  can  probably  be  obtained  in  actual  practice 
not  so  much  by  radical  changes  in  the  general  system  of 
training  as  by  speeding  up  and  making  more  efficient  the 
present  methods.    At  any  rate  the  War  Department  has 
called  upon  European  officers  of  experience  in  the  pres- 
ent war  to  assist  in  the  instruction  of  modern  warfare 
methods,  and  there  is  every  assurance  that  our  soldiers 
will  be  trained  in  the  latest  improvements  of  the  game. 
Our  particular  problem,  here  has,  of  course,  nothing  to 
do  with  suggesting  what  sort  of  training  is  to  be  given 
and  what  implements  of  war  are  to  be  used;  it  narrows 
down  to  a  speeding  up  process,  to  that  of  how  to  get  the 
best  results  in  the  things  to  be  learned  and  in  the  disci- 
pline to  be  given  the  men,  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
The  greatest  efficiency  of  all  the  men  is  the  ideal  for 
which  we  are  striving ;  in  many  respects  it  is  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  question  of  how  to  get  the  greatest 
number  into  the  service,  though  the  two  problems  are 
supplementary  rather  than  opposing  considerations. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Two  important  considerations  for  those  who  train 
the  recruits  and  who  lead  the  men  in  actual  warfare 
relate  to  the  extreme  individual  differences  of  the  men 
drafted  from  all  walks  of  life,  with  various  kinds  of 
training  and  ideals,  and  to  the  utilizing  of  the  natural 
instincts  in  the  men  for  the  attainments  of  their  best 
effort.  It  is  common  knowledge  among  military  men 
that  the  students  of  the  officers'  reserve  training  camps 
learned  practically  as  much  in  three  months  as  the  aver- 
age enlisted  man  has  learned  in  the  course  of  a  year  or 
two  during  peace  times.  This  difference  is  to  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  high  rewards  held  out  to  the  former 
class  of  men,  by  the  fact  that  these  student  officers  were 
mostly  all  college  men  and  were  apt  pupils  and  by  the 
efficient  system  of  intensified  training  evolved  for  them. 
The  training  of  the  men  who  will  make  up  our  national 
army  has  not  all  these  advantages.  In  the  officers'  re- 
serve training  camps  the  West  Point  system  of  sink  or 
swim  was  used  in  a  measure  and  the  rewards  were  high 
enough  to  arouse  the  keenest  competition. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that  all  the  drafted 
men  will  arrive  at  our  training  stations  brimming  over 
with  enthusiasm  and  a  desire  to  learn  everything  pos- 
sible about  the  new  work.  On  the  contrary,  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  these  men  have  claimed  exemption, 
and  they  will  probably,  at  first,  have  only  a  passive  in- 
terest in  their  work  at  the  best,  characterized  by  an 
attitude  of  resignation.  One  can  see  how  important  it  is, 
therefore,  that  at  the  beginning  the  officer  should  de- 
velop in  the  new  recruit  the  right  mental  attitude.  It  is 
necessary  for  our  national  safety  and  for  the  safety  of 
the  individual  soldiers  themselves  that  he  change  this 
lukewarm  attitude  into  active  interest  and  a  keen  desire 
to  become  as  efficient  as  possible  in  the  great  struggle 
before  the  nation.  In  bringing  about  this  transformation 
in  the  recruit  every  just  appeal  to  natural  or  instinctive 


^ 


6  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

dispositions  and  every  means  of  utilizing  the  psychological 
principles  of  learning  should  be  brought  into  play.  The 
young  American  of  today  is  doubtless  just  as  willing  to 
"do  and  die"  for  his  country  as  were  those  of  former 
years  whom  we  commemorate  in  song  and  story,  but 
the  situation  is  more  complex  now,  and  the  appeal 
instincts  of  self-preservation  is  not  so  direct  as  formerly, 
even  though  the  danger  to  national  and  common  welfare 
is  probably  greater.  When  the  situation  is  properly  p. 
presented  the  well  disciplined  American  soldier  will  just  .^j 
as  immediately  surrender  himself  to  the  commands  of  i, 
his  leader  without  demanding  reasons  why  as  did  any 
soldier  of  an  autocratic  system  that  suppressed  individu- 
ality, and  he  will  show  far  greater  efficiency  and  re- 
sourcefulness and  judgment  within  his  proper  limits. 
An  intelligent  co-operative  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
soldier  and  of  the  officer,  with  thorough  training  in  the 
war  game,  is  one  of  our  main  assurances  of  success  in 
the  present  crisis.  How  to  bring  this  attitude  about 
and  how  to  secure  this  training  in  the  short  time  available 
is  largely  a  problem  of  how  to  manipulate  human  nature 
or  how  to  handle  men. 

ii 

Nature  has  provided  well  for  the  life  of  each  normal 
individual.  All  the  vital  processes  looking  after  diges- 
tion, circulation,  breathing,  oxidation,  and  so  on,  are 
made  to  go  on  automatically,  one  part  of  this  whole 
vegetative  system  stimulating  others  and  in  turn  being 
stimulated  by  them.  These  life  processes  are  put  wholly 
beyond  our  voluntary  control.  A  person  may  hold  his 
breath  a  short  time,  but  soon  the  stimulus  to  breathe 
becomes  so  intense  as  to  overcome  his  efforts.  If  he 
should  become  unconscious  the  mechanism  would  run  it- 
self and  revive  him.  Nature  could  not  trust  us  so  direct- 
ly with  the  preservation  of  our  lives,  so  she  has  provided 
innate  mechanisms  to  do  all  these  things  for  us. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

But  this  is  not  all.  If  something  threatens  the  eye 
it  winks  immediately;  if  a  foreign  body  gets  into  the 
trachea  we  cough  automatically  or  reflexly;  if  irritated 
in  the  nostrils  we  sneeze;  if  confronted  by  some  great 
danger  we  instinctively  have  impulses  to  flee.  Obstruc- 
tion to  our  movements  and  our  purposes  angers  us  and 
we  resist  even  to  the  point  of  fighting  if  necessary.  When 
food  is  withheld  from  a  man  a  short  time  his  thoughts 
dwell  more  and  more  on  food  and  the  means  of  obtaining 
it,  and  he  finally  gets  desperate  and  will  do  almost  anything 
in  his  power  and  run  all  kinds  of  risk  to  get  food. 
Stimulation  for  such  food-getting  thoughts  and  acts  come 
from  the  changes  within  the  organism  itself. 

All  these  acts  go  on  as  naturally  as  water  goes  down 
the  gutter,  and  can  be  predicted  with  a  high  degree  of 
accuracy  when  the  individual  and  the  circumstances  are 
known.  If  they  are  not  interrupted  they  run  smoothly 
and  mechanically  in  the  main ;  but  interfere  with  any  of 
them,  and  they  surge  over  their  bounds,  as  does  the 
stream,  and  take  the  next  course  open  to  them. 

Usually  these  and  other  instinctive  acts  are  pleasur- 
able,  and  intense  emotion  frequently  arises  on  their  ob- 
struction, such  as  fear  and  rage.  It  has  often  been  held 
that  our  conscious  acts  seek  pleasure  or  avoid  pain  and 
that  the  aim  in  life  is  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  pleas- 
ure possible.  This  is  now  generally  known  to  be  wrong 
in  the  main.  The  error  of  the  view  becomes  most  ob- 
vious from  a  careful  study  of  certain  conscious  reflexes 
and  important  instincts.  Who  sneezes  or  falls  in  love 
for  the  pleasure  of  it?  The  young ~  ma.r]~Jatt*  jn  love  with 
th^beautifuijnaiden  because  he  cannot  help_.it..under-the. 
circumstances,  .and  gradually  the  universe  conies  to  re- 
volvejor  him  about  the  object  of  his  affection.  Many 
rationally  directed  acts  result,  preparing  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  family ;  but  these  come  rather  as  a  secondary 
consideration  and  must  be  done  because  of  the  general 


8  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

circumstances  brought  about,  whether  pleasant  or  other- 
wise. Reflective  thought  is  by  no  means  master  of  the 
human  machine.  A  good  sneeze  is  surely  pleasurable, 
but  the  act  is  not  done  to  get  pleasure;  it  simply  must 
take  place  when  the  conditions  for  stimulating  it  are  ful- 
filled. Recently  a  magazine  story  reported  that  a  French 
scout  when  right  under  the  enemy's  parapet  was  seized 
with  an  irresistible  impulse  to  sneeze.  To  sneeze  there 
would  almost  certainly  mean  death,  so  he  took  advantage 
of  the  situation  the  best  he  could ;  taking  the  enemy  by 
surprise  he  sneezed  and  attacked  before  anyone  could  get 
ready  for  defense — and  got  off  victorious !  The  sneeze, 
however,  had  to  come.  True  or  false,  this  in  miniature 
is  the  way  nature  works  in  us.  Given  the  appropriate 
stimuli,  the  innate  tendencies  must  express  themselves. 
In  complex  situations,  however,  and  under  the  effects 
of  training,  inhibitions  may  be  effectual  or  the  impulse 
may  be  directed  into  other  channels. 

Man  has  at  birth,  or  expressing  themselves  later  in 
life,  an  abundance  of  innate  tendencies,  which  in  gen- 
eral we  may  call  instincts;  they  are  clasping,  sucking, 
carrying  things  to  the  mouth,  crying(^iaughing,  sleep- % 
ing,  specifi^jooethods  olUocornoti<iQ,  playing,   vocaliza-  ^ 

tinn,  ^riafvility^pH^f^^  emulation,  pug-    , 

egariousness  ^tendencies  tb-^st^r*with  the 
'herd'  and  to  feel  uncomfortable  and  excitable  when 
alone),  sympathy,  flight  and  fear,  curiosity,  repulsion, 
acquisitiveness,  constructiveness,  secretiveness,  sexual 
love,  care  of  offspring,  and  others.  These  are  mostly 
taken  from  James*  Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  to 
which  the  interested  reader  is  referred  for  a  rather 
popular  and  brilliant  account  of  their  respective  roles 
in  our  lives.  A  good  discussion  of  instincts  as  basic  to 
our  entire  conduct  and  thought  is  also  found  in  Mc- 
DougalFs  Social  Psychology. 

We  are  so  constructed  by  nature  that  under  given 


INTRODUCTION  9 

conditions  we  must  act  in  certain  ways  for  our  general 
protection  and  welfare  and  for  the  perpetuation  of  the 
species.  These  conditions  are  of  two  general  kinds: 
first,  inherited  structure,  involving  such  things  as  con- 
nections among  nerves,  muscles,  and  glands;  and  appro- 
priate stimuli,  which  may  be  either  from  objects  and  cir- 
cumstances outside  the  body  or  from  such  inner  condi- 
tions as  hunger,  fatigue  products,  secretions  of  glands, 
and  possibly  accumulation  of  excess  stored  energy.  The 
perfection  of  some  of  these  instinctive  mechanisms, 
such  as  the  nerve  connections,  is  often  delayed  so  that 
the  particular  instincts  cannot  be  aroused  at  birth,  and 
in  some  cases  of  plastic  animals  like  man  a  great  deal 
of  practice  must  take  place  before  the  acts  can  be 
aroused  most  effectively;  but  in  all  cases  of  persistent 
activity  of  any  sort,  however  indefinite  and  abortive, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  find  some  sort  of  instinctive  motiva- 
tion. 

The  conditions  of  stimulation  are  frequently  such 
as  to  call  out  simultaneously  different  and  even  oppos- 
ing instincts.  Such  conditions  may,  on  superficial  ex- 
amination, seem  to  contradict  our  statement,  that  the 
act  must  take  place  when  the  appropriate  stimulation  of 
certain  inherited  structure  occurs,  but  further  analysis 
of  any  such  doubtful  case  will  probably  show  that  the 
act  is  delayed  or  somewhat  modified.  It  may  be  in- 
hibited or  suppressed  so  that  no  obvious  external 
response  takes  place,  but  inner  conflicts  will  result 
which  may  take  on  a  highly  emotional  tone  and  greatly 
modify  one's  behavior  subsequently.  If  a  person's  en- 
vironment could  be  completely  controlled,  he  could, 
doubtless,  with  a  proper  understanding  of  his  nature 
be  played  upon  like  a  musical  instrument  and  made  to 
conform  to  one's  wishes.  Even  such  acts  as  are  in- 
volved in  hunting  trips,  in  doing  one's  professional 
work,  writing  books,  painting  pictures,  etc.,  are  probably 


10  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

more  nearly  dominated  by  rather  immediate  instinctive 
impulses  than  most  of  us  realize.  We  do  them  because 
under  the  circumstances  of  our  training  and  present 
habits  and  innate  dispositions  they  are  the  most  natural 
things  for  us  to  do.  Others  are  doing  these  things  and 
calling  our  attention  to  them,  and  our  own  predisposi- 
tions to  do  them  are  set  off  both  by  the  circumstances 
of  seeing  them  done  by  others  and  by  the  attention  other 
people  get  who  do  them  well.  The  doing  of  these  things 
"appeals  to  us"  and  rivalry  spurs  us  on  when  once  we 
get  well  started. 

In  the  history  of  life  in  the  world  only  those  organ- 
isms have  survived  to  reproduce  their  kind  which  have  had 
the  appropriate  instincts  to  carry  on  the  life  processes 
and  to  save  themselves  from  threatening  dangers,  such 
as  attack  from  enemies  seeking  to  use  them  for  food. 
In  later  generations  the  individual  born  into  the  world 
is  therefore  the  descendant  only  of  the  organisms  best 
fitted  by  their  innate  mechanisms  for  life's  struggles. 
The  more  poorly  adapted  organisms  in  every  generation 
fail  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  life  and  so  they  do  not 
live  to  reproduce  their  own  kind.  Thus  advantageous 
predispositions  to  certain  kinds  of  defensive  acts  ac- 
cumulate in  successive  generations.  It  is  these  predis- 
positions to  act  in  certain  ways,  to  be  interested  in  cer- 
tain things  and  conditions,  and  to  experience  certain 
feelings  and  emotions  under  given  conditions  that  we 
know  as  instincts. 

Instincts  are  more  stereotyped  in  insects  arid  in  cer- 
tain other  lower  forms  having  so  short  a  life  that  they 
are  not  forced  to  meet  changing  conditions  of  climate 
and  of  food  supply.  Fish  have  very  definite  instincts, 
and  they  are  usually  hard  to  change,  because  of  the  uni- 
formity in  temperature  of  their  environmental  condi- 
tions, the  water.  Such  animals  adapt  themselves  to 
new  conditions  very  slowly.  The  writer  has  three  gold 


INTRODUCTION  11 

fish,  for  instance,  which  for  over  a  year  of  observation 
have  retained  the  instinct  of  quickly  darting  down  into 
the  water  whenever  they  take  their  (floating)  food 
from  the  surface.  This  instinct  is,  of  course,  useful  in 
nature  to  protect  them  from  fish-eating  birds.  As  James 
has  said  of  such  animals,  "Nature,  in  them,  has  left 
matters  in  this  rough  way,  and  made  them  act  always 
in  the  manner  which  would  be  oftenest  right." 

In  higher  and  longer-lived  animals  there  is  much 
more  adaptability  of  instincts,  because  such  animals 
have  to  live  through  different  seasons  and  must  there- 
fore accommodate  themselves  to  important  changes  in 
temperature  and  food  supply.  Instincts  in  such  cases 
necessarily  become  greatly  modified  by  habits  and  often 
the  acts  thus  modified  take  on  the  appearance  of  a  high 
degree  of  intelligence.  Thus  we  may  greatly  overes- 
timate the  intelligence  of  certain  animals  and  fail  to  see 
the  real  motivating  instincts  underlying  the  acts.  Like- 
wise, we  are  too  apt  to  interpret  our  own  conscious 
acts  as  rationally  motivated  and  directed,  when  many 
of  them  are  only  the  results  of  unr effective  adaptation 
of  instincts. 

Yet  how  little  we  really  think  of  these  things !  Man 
passes  himself  off  as  primarily  a  reasoning  animal, 
but  how  seldom  he  actually  reasons !  The  complexities 
of  the  environment  bring  about  modifications  of  the  in- 
nate dispositions,  or  instincts,  and  habits  give  shape  and 
uniformity  to  conduct.  Thus,  for  example,  our  instinct 
to  get  food  becomes  specialized  into  habits  that  take  us 
mechanically  to  our  tables  or  restaurants  at  specified 
hours.  The  whole  thing  goes  off  so  smoothly  and  regu- 
larly that  the  underlying  original  instinct,  the  inner 
stimulations  to  activity  in  hunger,  is  lost  sight  of  in  the 
routine  habits.  But  just  let  anything  interfere  for  a 
time  with  these  mechanical  habits,  with  the  habitual 
satisfaction  of  the  instinct,  and  it  soon  shows  itself  most 


12  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

powerfully.  So  with  most  of  the  other  instincts.  In 
fact,  it  is  now  getting  to  be  recognized  that  all  reason- 
ing processes  and  habit  formation  grow  out  of  the  fail- 
ure of  original  instinctive  reflexes  and  acts  to  meet  the 
bodily  needs  under  changed  conditions  of  environment. 
Habit  and  thought  are  motivated  by  instinctive  and  or- 
ganic needs.  As  one  psychologist  puts  it,  "Habits  are 
formed  only  in  the  service  of  the  instincts."  A  little 
observation  of  our  thinking  will  soon  convince  anyone 
that  our  thoughts  are  concerned  about  things  to  d-j. 
Instinctive  and  habitual  acts  need  no  thought  so  long 
as  they  do  not  meet  obstruction  or  conflict  among  them- 
selves, but  when  changed  conditions  demand  readjust- 
ment, we  are  forced  to  think  our  way  out  of  the  diffi- 
culties or  to  adjust  ourselves  by  a  random  trial  and 
error  process  such  as  will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter. 
Man  reasons  best  under  the  spur  of  necessity  or  of 
competition,  provided,  however,  the  dangers  or  the  ex- 
citing conditions  are  not  so  great  as  to  bring  about 
excessive  emotional  disturbances.  Scientific  institutions 
attempt  to  make  these  conditions  for  rational  activity 
most  favorable.  Under  great  emotional  disturbances 
man  frequently  acts  like  a  wild  beast.  To  prevent  this 
a  good  deal  of  training  under  such  conditions,  or  con- 
ditions similar  to  them,  must  be  given.  V*  ^\X*<CoAJ^\ 
What  a  dry,  hollow,  uninteresting/world  this  would 
be  if  our  instincts  were  all  annulleo/f  All  ambition  and 
self-pride  would  be  snuffed  out  at  once.  No  one  would 
care  for  anything;  wealth,  home,  country,  friends, — 
all  these  would  become  neutral  in  a  moment.  Life  would 
come  to  a  standstill;  reasoning  processes  would  end  as 
well  at  one  stage,  right  or  wrong  (but  there  would  be 
no  right  or  wrong!),  as  at  another.  Instincts  must  be 
the  basis  of  all  appeals,  of  all  stimulation  to  effort,  to 
ambition,  to  sacrifice,  and  to  loyalty.  Leadership,  diplo- 
macy, the  ability  to  inspire  men  to  superhuman  effort, 


INTRODUCTION  13 

and  greatest  of  all,  the  faculty  of  making  friends  and 
of  enjoying  the  world  with  them, — these  are  the  results 
of  proper  appeals  to  instincts.  Great  business  enter- 
prises now  attempt  scientifically  to  study  types  of  ap- 
peals to  human  nature  in  advertising;  they  find  that  it 
pays.  The  same  thing  is  obviously  true  of  training  men 
for,  and  leading  them  to  victory  over  a  nation's  enem- 
ies. Many  successful  military  leaders  in  democratic 
countries  now  recognize  this  fact.  Handling  men  is 
stimulating  instincts  in  a  thousand  and  one  more  or  less 
subtle  ways.  * 

Of  course,  one  does  not  absolutely  need  to  have  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  instincts  to  be  a  successful  man- 
ager and  leader  of  men.  Some  men  are  naturally  leaders  ; 
leadership  is  an  art.  That  genius  is  innate,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, is  usually  admitted,  but  knowledge  and  training  add 
efficiency  to  whatever  nature  or  endowment  may  have 
done  for  one.  If  haphazard  experience  counts  toward 
success,  then  surely  scientifically  directed  efforts  will  not 
fall  to  the  ground  unrewarded.  We  do  not  need  for  the 
present  purpose  a  lengthy  discussion  of  all  the  specific 
instincts,  but  some  of  those  instincts  of  special  import- 
ance to  the  army  officer  will  be  given  particular  attention 
in  subsequent  chapters,  Both  as  to  their  nature  and  their 
applications  in  warfare.  We  need  only  call  attention  here 
to  a  few  additional  matters  of  practical  value  which  fol- 
low from  the  conception  of  instinct  that  we  have  devel- 
oped, the  conception  that  instinct  is  the  driving  force,  so 
to  speak,  in  our  lives. 

in 

In  the  handling  of  men  it  is  well  to  take  toward  them 
the  attitude  of  practical  determinism.  This  means  that 
to  the  extent  that  we  know  any  individual  as  to  his  in- 
nate and  acquired  tendencies  and  the  circumstances  that 
stimulate  him,  directly  and  indirectly,  we  can  predict 
what  he  will  do  in  any  particular  situation.  The  good 


14  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

leader  is  the  individual  who  knows  or  proceeds  to 
find  out  a  good  deal  of  what  these  innate  and  acquired 
tendencies  are  in  a  practical  way,  that  is,  what  men  will 
probably  do  under  given  circumstances,  and  who 
then  controls  the  circumstances  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  bring  out  the  kind  of  acts  desired.  He  studies  in- 
dividual differences  and  knows  how  to  stimulate  each  one 
to  get  the  best  that  is  in  him.  Enthusiasm,  courage,  in- 
dividual initiative,  skill  and  efficiency  in  the  handling  of 
the  instruments  of  war, — these  desirable  traits,  and  many 
others  that  the  leader  trains  his  men  to  have,  all  come 
about  as  naturally  under  certain  conditions,  and  fail  to 
show  themselves  under  others,  as  water  boils  when  suffi- 
cient heat  has  been  applied.  Law  reigns  in  the  realm  of 
our  behavior  or  conduct  as  truly  as  it  does  in  the  physical 
world,  but  the  former  phenomena,  and  life  processes  gen- 
erally, are  more  complex  than  are  many  of  the  ordinary 
physical  changes  about  us  so  that  their  uniformities  are 
often  overlooked.  Certainly  we  can  predict  the  acts  of  a 
well  known  moral  man  about  as  well  as  we  can  foretell 
the  weather  conditions. 

In  all  the  industries  it  is  being  shown  by  some  of  the 
best  leaders  that  a  thorough  interest  in  the  lives  of  their 
men  and  a  knowledge  of  their*  individual  traits  lead  to 
better  co-operation  and  efficiency.  Laudable  attempts  are 
being  made  to  provide  attractive  environment  with  op- 
portunities of  recreation  and  of  social  contact.  These 
conditions  stimulate  personal  interest,  optimism,  and  am- 
bition in  the  employes.  In  the  army,  stimulation  of  these 
personal  attitudes,  as  every  experienced  officer  knows  so 
well,  is  a  most  important  consideration.  A  group  of  men 
may  do  their  work  mechanically  and  in  a  perfunctory 
manner  if  they  are  not  vitally  interested  in  it,  and  the  work 
seems  harder  and  more  disagreeable  than  it  does  when  the 
attitude  is  one  of  personal  interest.  This  is  a  condition  of 
low  efficiency  and  waste.  Let  them  become  thoroughly 
interested  and  enthusiastic,  let  them  throw  their  whole 


INTRODUCTION  IS 

souls  into  the  work  under  the  spur  of  interested  competi- 
tion, say,  something  that  directly  arouses  their  own  in- 
stincts, and  they  are  quite  different  individuals,  often 
two  or  more  times  as  efficient  and  tenacious  as  before. 
Work  that  affords  expression  to  one's  instincts  is  always 
interesting,  and  is  entered  into  whole-heartedly,  as  is  true 
of  play.  Such  work  is  thoroughly  enjoyed,  and  the  inner 
frictions,  feelings  of  passivity  and  even  of  slight  opposi- 
tion developed  in  many  cases  by  the  driving  methods,  are 
reduced.  Enjoyment  of  one's  work  and  enthusiasm  in 
its  performance  are  probably  signs  of  bodily  harmony 
and  efficiency  and  it  is  doubtless  only  with  this  attitude 
that  men  can  utilize  their  energy  to  the  utmost  and  with 
greatest  economy.  Half-hearted  response  is  wasteful  and 
every  means  should  be  used  to  get  the  recruit  and  the 
soldier  to  put  himself  unconditionally  into  his  work. 

While  men  may  work  regularly  and  often  with  fair  * 
efficiency  under  general  rules  and  regulations,  it  is  only 
by  personal  appeals  and  under  the  stimulation  of  close 
personal  interest  that  they  really  become  enthusiastically 
aroused.  To  do  the  very  best  teamwork  one  must  be- 
come closely  identified  with  the  team,  as,  for  instance,  in 
foot  ball,  and  must  get  to  feel  personally  affected  by  its 
successes  and  its  failures.  The  leader  or  commander,  who 
fails  to  get  such  interest  on  the  part  of  his  men  and  who 
therefore  gets  something  short  of  their  very  best  effort, 
will  do  well  to  lay  the  blame  on  himself  and  make  it  a 
special  problem  to  find  out  what  is  the  matter  with  his 
methods  or  in  what  particulars  he  is  not  succeeding  in 
arousing  the  interest  of  his  men.  The  habit  of  blaming 
failures  to  subordinates,  which  some  leaders  thoughtless- 
ly fall  into,  has  a  bad  effect  on  the  morale.  The  skillful 
leader  of  men  assumes  with  his  group,  team  or  company, 
the  responsibility  of  misfortunes,  and  he  does  it  in  such  a 
way  as  to  stimulate  each  member  to  his  utmost  effort 
by  a  sort  of  indirect  suggestion.  He  will  point  out  that 
in  this  and  that  particular  "we  didn't  quite  show  our 


16  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

greatest  strength/5  or,  "we  didn't  have  the  very  best 
team  play,"  "but,"  he  will  suggest,  "we  are  going  to 
show  them  next  time  what  we  can  do,"  and  so  on.  He 
is  one  of  the  group  and  they  are  all  losers  together  when 
anyone  does  not  exactly  measure  up  to  all  that  is  re- 
quired of  him  in  any  particular  contest  or  campaign.  The 
leader  works  himself  into  the  hearts  of  his  men — be- 
comes one  of  the  group — and  can,  with  great  freedom, 
indicate  in  detail  just  where  each  person  can  do  a  little 
better  or  improve  his  "plays,"  without  any  fear  of  arous- 
ing antagonism  or  personal  hatred.  Encouragements 
and  punishments  can  thus  be  skillfully  applied  to  indi- 
viduals by  manipulating  the  approval  and  disapproval  of 
the  group  or  company,  by  utilizing  social  instincts  which 
are  forceful  enough  for  all  but  the  most  extreme  cases  of 
punishment  and  reward.  Every  normal  man  wishes  to 
be  well  thought  of  by  his  immediate  associates,  and  will 
do  a  great  deal  to  preserve  the  good  will  and  high  esteem 
of  his  fellows. 

The  officer  that  assumes  a  large  share  of  responsi-  i< 
bility  himself  not  only  gets  the  hearty  co-operation  of 
his  men,  and  their  good  will,  but  he  puts  himself  into  an 
attitude  of  mind  that  easily  enables  him  to  get  at  the 
real  cause  of  the  trouble.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  leader 
of  a  group  of  men  is  largely  responsible  in  numerous 
indirect  ways  for  the  general  morale  and  spirit  of  the 
group,  and  it  is  well  known  that  certain  leaders  can  get 
out  of  their  men  a  surprising  amount  of  work  and  self- 
sacrifice.  Blaming  others  is  only  an  easy  way  of  excus- 
ing one's  self,  of  making  it  unnecessary  to  get  at  and 
acknowledge  the  personal  weakness  that  is  so  unpleasant 
to  admit,  even  to  one's  self.  Such  a  habit  is  practically 
always  evidence  of  weakness  and  inefficiency,  and,  what 
is  equally  important,  it  cannot  fail  to  arouse  antagonism 
in  subordinates.  It  is  a  sort  of  reaction  away  from  the 
reality  of  the  situation  and  one  that  is  bound  to  have  bad 
accumulative  effects  on  one's  self.  We  do  not  like  to 


INTRODUCTION  17 

think  of  ourselves  as  inefficient  so  we  find  a  cheap  and, 
for  the  time  being,  easy  way  of  showing  that  we  are  not, 
rather  than  of  facing  the  reality  and  working  to  improve 
ourselves  and  our  methods.  A  frank  acknowledgment 
to  one's  self  of  responsibility  in  ill  luck  or  failure  is  going 
a  long  way  toward  the  removal  of  the  real  cause  of  the 
condition.  It  develops  a  habit  that  will  in  time  make  very 
great  differences  in  the  results  obtainable,  and  opens  up 
new  problems  of  vital  interest  and  gives  new  insight  con- 
stantly into  the  best  methods  of  handling  men.  With 
such  an  attitude  one  is  bound  to  make  rapid  progress. 


CHAPTER  II 
COMPETITION 


The  late  Professor  James  said  that  nine-tenths  of  the 
world's  work  is  done  by  competition.  Even  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  only  one-tenth  is  a  more  accurate  estimate 
this  might  be  enough  to  turn  the  tide  in  a  crucial  fight. 
Our  leading  military  men  have  long  since  learned  the 
value  of  utilizing  competition  among  their  men.  Perhaps 
the  best  present  day  illustration  of  the  value  of  competi- 
tion is  that  of  the  remarkable  success  of  some  of  our  in- 
dustrial enterprises  which  have  made  use  of  the  principle. 
"The  Bell  Telephone  system  is  a  good  example.  By  keep- 
ing a  daily  record  of  each  of  its  thousands  of  employes, 
by  pitting  one  individual  against  another,  one  branch 
against  another  branch,  and. at  all  times  fostering  the 
contest  idea,  the  directors  of  this  system  have  built  up 
the  greatest  industry  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  Scores  of 
our  greatest  enterprises  owe  much  of  their  success  to  the 
fact  that  the  men  directing  them  have  understood  the 
value  of  and  have  utilized  competitive  impulses  in  arous- 
ing their  employes. 

In  our  modern  educational  systems  emulation  and 
competition  play  consciously  or  unconsciously  a  large 
role.  The  Jesuits,  who  made  extensive  use  of  these  im- 
pulses, called  emulation  the  "whetstone  of  talent,  the 
spur  of  industry."  Without  competitive  impulses  produc- 
tion in  music  and  art  and  research  in  science  would  not 
be  developed  to  their  present  stage.  It  is  not  altogether 
art  for  art's  sake  or  a  dispassionate  "love  of  truth  for  its 
own  sake"  that  impels  one  on  in  these  worthy  disciplines, 
but  production  in  art  and  the  search  for  truth  in  science 
furnish  excellent  opportunities  for  the  matching  of  indi- 
18 


COMPETITION  19 

vidual  genius  and  industry.  The  pleasure  a  scientific 
man  finds  in  showing  up  the  fallacies  of  theories  opposite 
or  contradictory  to  those  entertained  by  himself  is  not 
explicable  on  the  basis  of  a  mere  love  of  truth ;  the  "truth" 
that  one  represents  or  that  one's  own  school  of  thought 
stands  for  is  the  truth  that  one  loves  above  all  other 
truth. 

Competition  was  the  main  driving  force  in  the  train- 
ing camps  of  1917  which  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
transformed  forty-five  thousand  civilians  into  army  offi- 
cers. While  these  men  doubtless  entered  the  camps  in 
response  to  the  call  of  duty,  to  a  feeling  that  they  would 
serve  their  country,  it  was  competition  for  the  high  re- 
wards held  out  that  spurred  them  on  to  learn  in  one  day 
what  in  ordinary  times  would  have  taken  five.  There  can 
be  little  doubt,  however,  that  competition  as  well  as  loyalty 
was  influential  in  bringing  many  of  them  into  the  camps. 
The  two  impulses  are  not  mutually  exclusive.  The  great 
emphasis  that  society  for  its  own  safety  placed  upon  this 
work  was  enough  to  make  any  man  restless  whose  asso- 
ciates were  going  into  it  and  were  therefore  receiving 
the  attention  thus  merited.  To  respond  to  the  competi- 
tive impulse  is  as  natural  for  a  man  as  to  respond  to  the 
stimulation  of  hunger,  and  there  is  not  a  great  deal  of 
difference  in  principle,  when  it  is  your  duty  to  take  care 
of  and  train  a  man,  between  denying  him  sufficient  food 
and  denying  him  the  opportunities  of  stimulation  based 
on  his  rivalry  instinct. 

The  results  of  competition  can  probably  be  meas- 
ured or  evaluated  more  accurately  in  the  field  of  ath- 
letics than  in  most  other  fields.  At  the  world's  fair  dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1915,  the  writer  saw  the  international 
races  held  at  Sutro  Baths  in  San  Francisco.  There  were 
four  world's  records  broken  that  evening,  due  to  the  in- 
tense competition  which  resulted  from  the  bringing  to- 
gether of  the  best  swimmers  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Duke  Kahamamoku,  the  Hawaiian  short  distance  champ- 


20  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

ion  swimmer  of  the  world,  lowered  at  that  time  his  record 
for  the  hundred  yards  as  a  result  of  being  closely  pressed 
by  the  swimmers  who  were  competing  against  him.  All 
the  world's  track  records  have  been  made  when  the  win- 
ner was  stimulated  by  a  contesting  rival  or  rivals  racing 
along  beside  him.  Few  runners  indeed  have  approached 
the  hundred  in  ten  seconds  running  individually.  To 
make  the  best  record  it  has  been  necessary  to  match  two 
or  more  athletes  against  each  other  and  thus  to  secure  the 
greatest  efforts  from  each  man.  The  writer  happened 
to  be  present  the  afternoon  that  Dan  Patch,  the  world's 
then  greatest  pacer,  lowered  his  record  for  the  mile  on  the 
Midway  track  at  Minnesota.  It  had  been  advertised  that 
the  great  pacer  would  race  against  his  previous  record, 
and  not  a  few  of  the  observers  were  a  little  puzzled  to 
see  another  horse  line  up  beside  Dan  Patch  at  the  start- 
ing line,  but  after  the  start  they  soon  got  the  idea.  The 
purpose  was,  of  course,  to  arouse  every  bit  of  winning 
spirit  in  Dan  Patch.  At  the  last  quarter  a  fresh  horse 
joined  the  race  and  was  allowed  to  run  all  the  way  in 
order  to  spur  the  racer  to  his  best  efforts. 

Competition  is  the  principle  that  has  made  foot  ball, 
base  ball,  and  boxing  the  most  interesting  of  our  athletic 
contests  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  participants  as 
well  as  of  the  observers.  This  fact  was  brought  home 
to  me  very  forcibly  last  winter.  During  the  early  part  of 
the  winter  I  had  an  opportunity  to  indulge  in  one  of  my 
favorite  sports,  skating.  There  was  a  rink  very  close  to 
the  house,  and  several  evenings  each  week  I  would  go  out 
alone  and  skate,  enjoying  the  exercise  very  much. 
Then  as  a  result  of  a  vacation  I  had  an  opportunity  to 
play  hocky  on  these  same  sheets  of  ice  for  several  after- 
noons in  succession.  The  hocky  game  usually  settled 
down  to  a  hotly  contested  affair,  the  sides  being  about 
evenly  matched  and  both  teams  playing  for  all  they  were 
worth.  When  the  vacation  came  to  an  end  I  was  denied 
the  opportunity  of  playing  hocky  and  went  back  to  my 


COMPETITION  21 

evening  skating.  I  found  now,  however,  to  my  surprise 
that  it  was  necessary  to  force  myself  to  get  out  on  the 
ice  and  somehow  I  did  not  get  the  exhilaration  out  of 
the  skating  that  was  expected.  After  a  few  evenings, 
during  which  I  continued  to  find  skating  a  listless  pas- 
time, it  slowly  dawned  on  me  that  I  was  missing  the 
stimulation  of  competition  so  strong  in  hocky. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  spur  of  competition 
is  necessary  to  secure  the  greatest  individual  and  group 
efficiency.  Quicker  progress  is  made  by  the  individual  or 
the  group  when  the  instinct  of  rivalry  is  stimulated  than 
otherwise.  History  shows  that  the  most  progressive 
races  have  been  those  which  have  been  exposed  to  con- 
tinual competition  by  strong  rivals.  It  is  evident  that  to 
secure  the  best  results  in  training  recruits  the  officers 
should  make  use  of  all  the  opportunities  possible  to 
arouse  competition  among  their  men.  At  the  present 
writing  the  Americans  on  the  west  front  in  Europe  seem 
to  be  getting  a  great  deal  of  stimulus  from  competition 
in  "getting  the  Hun,"  and  their  desire  to  show  superiority 
over  the  enemy,  man  for  man,  is  a  great  factor  in  their 
enthusiasm,  courage,  and  endurance. 

An  examination  of  the  biology  and  psychology  of  com- 
petition supports  the  above  view  of  its  practical  impor- 
tance in  stimulating  men  to  their  utmost  capacity. 

ii 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  competition  is  well 
grounded  in  instinct,  that  it  is  based  on  "original  nature" 
in  man.  Many  more  animals  of  all  sorts  are  produced, 
because  of  the  geometrical  rate  of  increase,  than  can  find 
room  and  the  necessary  food  in  the  world.  Hence, 
"struggle  for  existence"  arises,  as  the  biologists  since 
Darwin  have  recognized,  and  in  the  struggle,  which  may 
of  course  be  either  conscious  or  unconscious,  the  fittest 
survive  to  reproduce  their  kind.  Usually  in  the  animal 
kingdom  energy  and  alertness  to  the  activity  of  rivals 
bring  the  reward  of  the  victor.  An  animal  that  is  not 


22  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

spurred  to  greater  effort  or  activity  by  the  sight  of  an- 
other animal  of  the  same  species  getting  food,  for  in- 
stance, is  unable  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  others ;  it 
must  rely  on  its  own  appetite,  and  when  its  time  of  the 
hunger  impulse  comes  the  available  food  may  be  gone. 

Usually  each  animal  is  highly  sensitive  to  such  acts 
of  other  animals  of  whatever  species  as  tend  directly  or 
indirectly  to  affect  itself,  to  limit  or  extend  its  own  op- 
portunities of  life.  There  need,  of  course,  be  no  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  any  such  effect  upon  one's  self;  the 
sensitivity  is  instinctive  and  the  acts  thus  stimulated  take 
place  because  they  are  the  most  natural  or  fit  things  to  do 
under  the  circumstances.  What  dog,  even  though  satiated, 
will  not  eat  more  or  "stay  in  the  manger,"  under  the  stim- 
ulus of  another  dog,  not  too  formidable,  approaching  the 
food?  To  those  who  have  had  experience  with  the  care 
of  domestic  animals  it  is  well  known  that  when  the  ani- 
mals— cows,  hogs,  chickens,  etc., — are  fed,  the  hurried 
movement  toward  the  food  of  any  one  of  a  kind  greatly 
excites  the  others  and  increases  their  approach. 

This  characteristic  sensitivity  of  an  animal  to  the 
acts  of  others,  threatening  directly  or  indirectly  to  limit 
its  own  opportunity,  has  obviously  a  life  function,  a  sur- 
vival value.  Lack  of  impulses  to  greater  activity  under 
conditions  bringing  success  to  one's  fellows  could  mean 
nothing  but  final  defeat  in  the  struggle  for  existence  and 
the  biological  elimination  of  one's  kind.  In  animals  there 
need  be  no  idea,  as  has  already  been  said,  of  the  advan- 
tage of  the  rivalry  impulse.  The  "dog  in  the  manger"  does 
not  defend  the  food  which  it  cannot  itself  eat  because  it 
appreciates  that  it  will  in  time  be  hungry  and  need  it; 
it  simply  cannot  leave  the  food  under  the  stimulus  of  an- 
other dog  waiting  to  get  it.  It  is  constituted  by  heredity 
to  act  this  way  just  as  we  are  constituted  to  sneeze,  and 
must'sneeze,  when  the  nostrils  are  sufficiently  irritated. 

In  human  behavior  there  is  often  more  or  less  ex- 
plicit appreciation  and  thought  of  the  benefit  to  one's 


COMPETITION  23 

self  of  the  competitive  act.  The  child  may  become 
aroused  by  another  child's  taking  what  he  will  in  time  be 
able  to  use,  because  he  appreciates  in  a  measure  that  it 
limits  his  own  privileges  or  possibilities ;  and  each  of  the 
rivals  for  a  certain  position  appreciates  fully  that  the 
success  of  the  other  means  his  own  failure.  But  even  in 
such  cases  of  explicit  recognition  of  the  relations  of  the 
different  competitive  acts,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  in- 
terest is  compelled  by  a  real  instinctive  disposition.  The 
writer  remembers  living  one  time  for  a  few  years  in  a 
town  given  to  speculation  on  mining  stocks.  The  success 
of  one  speculator  meant,  of  course,  the  misfortune  of 
another.  He  noticed,  as  a  disinterested  observer,  that 
frequently  the  announcement  of  some  one's  failure  in  a 
venture  brought  instantaneously  a  fiendish  satisfaction 
to  friendly  fellow  gamblers,  an  instinctive  satisfaction 
expressing  itself  in  the  laughing  at  and  the  tantalizing  of 
the  unfortunate  person.  Immense  interest  in  the  "re- 
turns" was  manifested,  an  interest  far  exceeding  the 
mere  rational  appreciation  of  the  possible  effect  on  one. 
Men  having  very  little  at  stake  seemed  about  as  inter- 
ested as  those  with  considerable  in  the  game.  This  fiend- 
ish glorification  at  the  rival's  loss  flushed  momentarily 
over  individuals  who  were  not  at  all  proud  of  it  on  more 
thought  about  the  matter.  The  instinctive  basis  of  these 
expressions  was  obvious.  Whether  there  is  a  pure  rivalry 
instinct,  or  whether  these  impulses  and  acts  are  expres- 
sions of  such  other  recognized  instincts  as  self-assertion 
is  not  important  for  us  here. 

Pugnacity  easily  and  frequently  shows  itself  when 
one's  acts  or  desires  are  obstructed  by  others,  especially 
by  rivals.  Who  has  not  seen  children  at  home  get  into  a 
fight  for  some  morsel  of  food,  or  for  some  sort  of  re- 
ward or  approval,  largely  because  the  activity  of  the  one 
excited  and  stimulated  the  other?  What  healthy  bov, 
even  just  after  a  meal,  will  sit  still  and  see  his  brother 
get  an  extra  piece  of  cake?  Boys  "are  not  made  that  way". 


24  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

Whose  heart  does  not  throb  with  jealousy  on  seeing  an 
equal  in  any  social  or  economic  service  unjustly  advanced 
beyond  himself  ?  In  the  adult  man  such  instinctive  im- 
pulses may  be  so  suppressed  or  sublimated  as  to  challenge 
recognition  by  his  fellows,  but  they  will  nevertheless 
stimulate  him  to  greater  effort,  or  possibly,  to  criticism  or 
anger  if  the  recognition  of  the  rival  was  obviously  on  un- 
just grounds.  Under  peculiar  conditions  they  tend  to- 
ward discouragement  and  disheartened  effort. 

Self-assertion,  and  possibly  also  a  distinct  rivalry  in- 
stinct, as  suggested,  seem  to  be  innate  tendencies 
most  directly  and  generally  underlying  the  competitive 
behavior  of  animals  and  of  men.  Even  without  any 
more  direct  motive  than  these  instincts  furnish,  a  per- 
son cannot  stand  unmoved  and  witness  the  success  or 
recognition  of  an  associate.  Even  reading  or  hearing  of 
the  success  of  distant  and  past  heroes  arouses  us  to  self- 
ambition.  Various  other  instincts  are,  however,  usually' 
excited  and  enter  into  competitive  behavior.  If  a  fellow 
creature  is  seen  getting  food  similar  impulses  are  aroused 
in  one's  self ;  under  certain  competitive  conditions  sexual 
jealousy  is  aroused,  under  others  struggles  for  food  or 
for  freedom  or  for  renown.  These  are  not  mere  imita- 
tive acts,  as  is  superficially  supposed ;  they  are  compelled 
in  each  case  by  a  degree  of  antagonism  and  by  self-asser- 
tion. Pugnacity  is  often  strongly  aroused  under  any 
such  circumstances. 

Rivalry  implies  something  like  equality  in  a  more  or 
less  personal  struggle.  Jealousy  and  envy  are  mental 
conditions,  or  emotions,  resulting  in  different  degrees 
and  successive  stages  in  one  individual  upon  the  percep- 
tion of  greater  success  or  preferment  of  a  rival  or  com- 
petitor. Envy  is  more  likely  to  involve  the  added  con- 
sciousness of  personal  injury,  as  some  authorities  have 
analyzed  it.  In  the  various  types  of  competitive  behavior 
we  use  the  word  competition  especially  in  business  and 
economic  relations,  emulation  in  scholarship,  and  rivalry 


COMPETITION  25 

in  love,  in  politics,  and  in  other  matters  in  which  the  con- 
siderations are  more  personal  in  their  bearings  and  of 
less  obvious  or  direct  social  value.  In  rivalry  hostility 
is  more  apt  to  enter.  Emulation  for  excellence  in 
achievement  and  competition  for  some  sort  of  prize  or 
economic  reward  may,  of  course,  be  friendly  and  pre- 
arranged by  the  competitors  themselves.  Competition  is 
the  "spice"  of  many  kinds  of  play  and  of  games  involving 
both  individual  and  group  contests. 

Group  competition  involves  co-operative  activity 
among  the  members  of  each  group,  and  is  an  effective 
means  of  teaching  co-operation  and  teamplay.  Such  com- 
petition usually  takes  place  under  certain  restrictions, 
such  as  rules  mutually  agreed  upon  or  conditions  stand- 
ardized by  society,  which  become  principles  of  justice 
or  laws.  Social  recognition  of  superiority  is  a  great  spur 
to  co-operative  activity,  bringing  out  the  best  effort  of 
each  competitor. 

In  group  competition,  as  has  been  suggested,  the  in- 
dividuals cease  to  act  on  their  own  accounts ;  each  must 
act  for  the  group  end,  for  the  good  of  all  concerned, 
even  at  personal  sacrifice  and  limitation.  Thus  individual 
temper  and  freedom  of  choice  and  the  sense  of  personal 
responsibility  are,  in  a  measure,  eliminated,  or  at  least 
are  subdued  and  directed  toward  the  consideration  of 
group  good;  and  co-operative  effort  and  teamplay  come 
to  the  fore. 

Thus  in  group  competition  we  retain  the  stimulating 
effect  of  certain  individuals  being  pitted  against  others, 
and  leave  out  the  more  unpleasant  personalities  coming 
up  in  individual  rivalry;  we  also  get  the  steadying  in- 
fluence of  the  larger  and  more  impartial  agencies,  rules, 
or  social  constraint  imposed,  and  with  it  the  greater  social 
interest  and  stimulus  resulting  from  the  implied  social 
weal  or  woe,  the  rendering  of  "increased  service  to  out- 
side parties."  Finally,  group  competition  affords  op- 
portunity for  the  most  effective  stimulus  to  real  co-opera- 


26  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

tive  effort  and  teamplay.  One  must  learn  in  such  com- 
petition to  study  the  group  aims  and  means  and  the 
interrelated  contributions  of  each  member,  each  taking 
the  part  assigned  him  as  of  most  service  to  the  common 
good.  Action  on  one's  own  account  and  according  to 
one's  own  idea  is  out  of  the  question  except  within 
limits.  This  implies  also  the  subordination  of  one  in- 
dividual to  another,  and  the  surrender  of  his  will  to  the 
wishes  and  commands  of  the  directors  of  the  contest. 
When  these  attitudes  are  taken  unconditionally  and 
whole-souledly,  allowing,  of  course,  for  individuality 
within  the  limits  of  initiative  due  each  person,  we  have 
loyalty  at  its  best. 

With  special  reference  to  economic  usage  President 
Hadley,  of  Yale,  has  defined  competition  in  Baldwin's 
Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology  as,  "The  effort 
of  different  individuals  engaged  in  the  same  line  of  ac- 
tivity each  to  benefit  himself,  generally  at  the  other's  ex- 
pense, by  rendering  increased  service  to  outside  parties." 
Two  contestants  in  a  fight,  he  explains,  and  two  nations 
each  trying  to  out-do  the  other  in  standing  armies  are 
strictly  speaking  not  competitors ;  they  are  excluded  by 
the  last  phrase  in  the  definition,  "rendering  increased  ser- 
vice to  outside  parties."  Nations  may,  however,  compete 
in  foreign  trade  because  the  one  displaces  the  other  only 
by  rendering  superior  service.  While  the  distinction 
here  suggested  cannot  obviously  be  too  closely  pressed, 
the  definition  quoted  may  serve  to  indicate  for  our  pres- 
ent purpose  the  main  essentials  of  competition. 

in 

4  The  old  custom  or  usage  in  the  army  was  to  make 
promotions  and  advancements  largely  on  the  basis  of 
seniority  in  the  service.  The  officer  who  had  been  in 
the  service  the  longest  was  the  highest  ranking  officer. 
However,  soon  after  our  entrance  into  the  present  war, 
the  War  Department  changed  the  basis  of  promotion  to 
that  of  efficiency;  and  this  fact  offers  one  of  the  best  and 


COMPETITION  27 

most  practical  means  of  stimulating  competition  in  the 
men.  It  is  human  nature,  and  especially  an  American 
characteristic,  to  desire  to  reach  the  top  in  any  line  of 
endeavor,  and  the  officer  who  neglects  to  impress  on  his 
men  the  fact  that  they  have  a  good  chance  for  advance- 
ment is  neglecting  to  use  one  of  the  best  available  stimuli 
to  increased  effort  on  the  part  of  his  men.  It  is  import- 
ant to  impress  upon  the  new  recruits  that  they  have  en- 
tered a  game  that  is  played  each  day  and  that  there  is 
continual  competition;  that  in  order  to  win  out  in  the 
army  one  must  be  alert  at  all  times,  for  soldiering  is  a 
big  game  with  no  limit  to  the  stakes  to  be  won.  This  view 
is  not  incompatible  with  a  high  moral  tone  in  the  army. 
But  the  advancement  reward  is  not  the  only  method  of 
stimulating  competition.  There  are  many  specific  ways 
of  arousing  competitive  impulses  without  a  materialistic 
reward  for  the  winner.  The  keenest  competition  may 
be  developed  in  a  short  written  test.0  For  example,  a 
short  time  ago,  in  a  class  in  military  courtesy  it  was  be- 
coming quite  apparent  that  the  men  were  losing  interest 
due  to  the  continual  repetition  of  the  more  important 
features  of  the  subject.  The  work  had  been  all  oral  and 
it  occurred  to  the  instructor  that  a  written  test  on  the 
subject  might  stimulate  interest  in  the  course,  especially 
if  it  were  announced  beforehand  that  the  marks  would 
be  posted.  The  results  of  that  test  showed  increased 
application  in  studying  the  subject,  and  when  the  instruc- 
tor went  out  in  the  squad  room  to  post  the  marks  the 
men  came  running  in  their  eagerness  to  find  their  rela- 
tive standing.  Every  man  likes  to  rank  high  among  his 
fellows,  and  when  an  objective  rating  of  all  the  men's 
work  can  be  accurately  obtained  and  made  accessible  to 
all  it  becomes  an  incentive  to  greatly  increased  individual 
effort. 

Competition  in  class  work  should  be  stimulated  by 
frequent  written  tests  and  the  relative  standing  of  the 
men  determined  thereby  should  be  published.  This  is  a 


28  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

means  of  enabling  each  man  to  compete  against  every 
other,  for  every  time  one  man  moves  up  one  step  in  rank 
some  other  must  go  down  a  step.  Similar  treatment  of 
results  of  other  contests  is  recommended  in  so  far  as  the 
results  can  be  rated  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy 
so  that  the  men  will  feel  that  no  injustice  is  done.  Many 
good  personal  traits  cannot  with  the  present  development 
of  methods  be  thus  exhibited,  however,  and  the  instruc- 
tor must  be  careful  not  to  do  personal  injury  by  carrying 
this  scheme  too  far.  Every  good  method  has  its  dangers 
and  rules  cannot  take  the  place  of  the  resourcefulness 
of  the  instructor  or  leader. 

Another  idea  employed  in  the  training  camps,  which 
has  been  tried  on  recruits  with  good  results,  is  that  of 
keeping  the  grades  of  the  men  on  cards.  On  each  of  these 
cards  is  the  list  of  the  men  in  a  company,  and  every 
day  some  of  the  men  are  graded  on  their  work  in  drills, 
recitation,  etc.  Oi  course  it  is  impossible  to  mark  every 
man  in  one  day's  drill,  but  while  one  officer  conducts  the 
drill  another  marks  some  of  the  men  especially  observed 
each  day.  Grading  can  be  done  rather  accurately  on  a 
scale  of  five:  1,  for  very  good;  2,  good;  3,  fair;  4,  poor; 
and  5,  very  poor.  This  plan  of  giving  special  attention 
to  a  few  men  each  day  also  tends  to  develop  better  atten- 
tion to  individuals  and  to  stimulate  personal  acquaint- 
ance. For  this  latter  purpose  it  is  frequently  a  good  plan 
when  the  men  are  new  to  have  each  wear  a  tag  bearing 
his  name.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  personal  in- 
terest in  a  man  tends  to  stimulate  his  ambition  and  to 
arouse  him  to  better  effort.  All  officers  should  make  it  a 
point  to  learn  the  names  of  the  men  and  to  encourage 
the  enlargement  of  acquaintance  among  the  men  them- 
selves, for  the  soldier  will  respond  to  competition  much 
more  readily  when  he  feels  that  he  is  personally  known 
and  that  others  are  interested  in  his  record.  Every 
normal  man  desires  to  stand  well  in  the  eyes  of  his  fel- 
lows. 


COMPETITION  29 

Competition  can  be  made  to  enliven  almost  any  proc- 
ess as  it  is  going  on,  as  well  as  through  an  interest  in 
the  results,  thus  making  the  practice  more  like  play.  Our 
company  at  the  officers'  reserve  training  camp  of 
Snelling,  Minnesota,  had  been  practising  grenade  throw- 
ing for  several  days,  and  interest  in  the  drill  was  getting 
to  lag  somewhat,  due  undoubtedly  to  the  monotonous 
repetition  of  the  same  movements, — the  extended  left 
arm,  eye  on  the  grenade,  the  crouching  position,  the 
throw,  and  the  dropping  of  the  body  quickly.  Competi- 
tion had  not  definitely  entered  into,  the  practice  until  one 
morning  one  of  the  men  placed  half  way  between  the 
two  lines  of  grenadiers  a  large  board  that  served  as  a 
target.  This  gave  the  opportunity  for  each  line  to  knock 
down  the  target  in  turn,  and  as  a  result  the  practice  quick- 
ly changed  from  tedious  work  to  a  game  into  which  each 
man  entered  with  renewed  vigor.  There  is  really  no  part 
of  the  days'  training  that  the  officer  who  is  alert  and  in- 
genious will  not  find  an  opportunity  to  enliven  with  com- 
petition, both  individual  and  group. 

To  compare  more  definitely  the  usage  in  different 
training  camps  the  following  specific  questions  were  put 
to  various  army  officers  engaged  in  training  men : 

"1.  Do  you  regard  it  wise  to  stimulate  competition? 
On  what  matters  do  the  soldiers  compete  and 
what  means  do  you  have  of  judging  their  re- 
sults ? 

2.  Do  you  encourage  competition  between  squads 
and  between  companies  ? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  forms  of  competition  that 

you  have  employed?  Which  have  proved  most 
successful?" 

All  agreed  that  competition  should  be  encouraged  and 
all  showed  that  it  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  both 
among  squads  and  companies.  Soldiers  compete  in  ath- 
letics of  various  kinds  both  for  the  development  of  per- 
sonal interest  in  the  group,  later  to  be  considered,  and  for 


30  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

various  desirable  physical  and  mental  results ;  they  com- 
pete for  the  best  appearance  in  inspections  and  for  supe- 
riority in  most  every  kind  and  detail  of  drill.  Individuals 
of  squads,  platoons  and  companies  compete  among  them- 
selves in  such  things  as  grenade  throwing  and  target 
practice,  admission  to  the  latter  being  granted  only  to 
those  making  a  certain  fair  score  with  the  aiming  devices. 
Many  of  the  exercises  lend  themselves  well  to  both  indi- 
vidual and  group  contests.  It  is  important  to  note  that 
individuals  may  compete  among  themselves  in  most  any 
kind  of  group  contest  in  which  the  results  of  individual 
scores  are  subject  to  rather  accurate  measurement  and 
are  summarized  or  averaged  in  group  contests.  Trainers 
should  take  notice  of  the  difference  between  competition 
for  superior  results  thus  objectively  compared,  and  com- 
petition in  the  process  as  it  goes  along,  one  side,  as  in  a 
game,  trying  to  get  through  before  the  other,  or  in  some 
way  to  out-do  it.  The  former  kind  of  competition  can 
be  greatly  improved  and  enlarged  in  scope  by  a  proper 
standardization  of  results.  Such  standardization  of  a 
larger  variety  of  performances  would  enable  each  indi- 
vidual and  each  squad  or  company  to  compete  with  any 
other  individual  or  similar  group  in  any  part  of  the  coun- 
try or  in  Europe ;  it  would  also  enable  the  individual  or 
group  to  compete  in  successive  periods  against  its  own 
record  and  to  plot  curves  of  the  progress  made. 

All  competition  whether  of  individual  with  individual 
or  group  with  group  should  have  purpose.  One  officer 
states  that,  "these  competitions  are  always  successful 
and  one  could  hardly  be  said  to  be  more  so  than  another." 
Such  a  statement  does  not  show  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  various  objects  of  competition.  Competition  may 
aim  primarily  to  motivate  intensive  practice  for  increased 
skill  of  each  individual  in  some  particular  kind  of  per- 
formance; it  may  have  as  its  special  object  the  d6velop- 
ment  of  teamplay  or  of  a  strong  group  consciousness, 
so  that  a  personal  interest  in  the  company  will  be  aroused 


COMPETITION  31 

to  the  extent  that  the  more  efficient  members  will  aid  the 
less  efficient  or  compel  them  to  do  a  great  deal  of  hard 
work  and  practice;  it  may  have  for  its  object  the  arousal 
of  enthusiasm  and  optimistic  aggressiveness  in  general. 
There  are  many  other  objects  that  one  may  have  in  view 
in  competition,  and  certainly  all  forms  of  contests  are 
not  equally  successful  for  the  attainment  of  these  vari- 
ous ends.  The  new  officer  should  be  careful  not  to  lose 
sight  of  the  specific  purposes  of  competition,  and  he 
should  select  the  type  of  contest  most  suited  in  any  one 
case  to  the  end  in  view,  varying  the  nature  of  contests, 
of  course,  to  keep  interest  at  its  highest  level  and  to  give 
diversity  of  skill.  The  lack  of  a  specific  purpose  usually 
means  that  the  competitive  exercise  is  not  as  useful  as  it 
should  be,  even  though  it  may  be  interesting. 

It  seems  that  improvement  could  be  made  in  many 
particulars  as  to  means  of  judging  results.  This  is  the 
aspect  of  probably  the  greatest  gain  in  recent  educa- 
tional progress.  One  officer  says :  "The  only  means  of 
judging  their  results  (in  competition)  is  observation  on 
the  part  of  their  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers;" 
another,  "Inspection  and  test,"  but  the  test  probably  ap- 
plies only  to  a  few  of  the  more  objective  results,  such  as 
percentage  of  hits  in  various  kinds  of  target  and  grenade 
practice.  It  would  be  very  desirable  for  certain  officers  to 
co-operate  on  the  formation  of  various  measuring  scales 
for  accurate  rating  of  different  kinds  of  performance  so 
standardized  that  any  squad,  platoon,  company,  or  any 
other  group  could  compete  with  the  records  of  any  simi- 
lar group  in  the  entire  army.  By  this  means  various 
methods  of  training  could  easily  be  evaluated  quantita- 
tively, and  effects  of  age,  climate,  season,  and  of  other 
conditions  determined.  Such  standardization  of  perform- 
ance is  of  very  great  value  for  answering  specifically 
most  important  questions  that  arise  regarding  training. 
It  could  be  effected  most  economically  and  efficiently  by 


32  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

calling  into  assistance  some  of  the  most  skilled  educa- 
tional experts  in  performance  tests. 

Competition  may  serve  so  many  purposes  ordinarily 
overlooked  that  it  is  well  to  draw  extensively  on  actual 
experience  to  see  what  it  can  do  in  quite  different  lines 
from  those  usually  thought  of,  lines  that  indirectly  bear 
on  some  most  important  matters  of  attitude.  It  is  well 
known,  for  instance,  that  an  individual  will  usually  live 
up  to  what  is  expected  of  him ;  if  he  is  regarded  as  being 
worthless  he  finds  it  very  hard  to  be  otherwise,  while  if 
great  things  are  expected  of  him  he  is  naturally  aroused 
by  the  confidence  and  encouragement  of  others.  In  fact, 
what  each  person  thinks  of  himself  is  pretty  largely  only 
what  he  knows  or  thinks  is  others'  estimate  of  him.  In 
the  presence  of  persons  who  regard  him  meanly  he  is 
apologetic  and  weak,  at  the  lowest  level  of  his  resources, 
while  in  the  presence  of  inferiors  he  is  aggressive,  self- 
confident  and  often  able  to  use  his  powers  at  their  best. 
It  is  true  that  what  others  think  of  one  depends  largely 
on  what  one  has  actually  done,  but  often  if  one  does  ex- 
ceptionally well  in  some  one  line  of  activity  the  respect 
and  encouragement  thus  gained  is  applied  more  generally 
and  one  com^  to  be  rated  as  superior  in  other  matters. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  groups,  and  the  principle  is  so 
well  illustrated  in  a  valuable  memorandum  by  Colonel 
N.  B.  Crosby,  prepared  for  us  by  the  kind  co-operation 
of  Rrigafliej- ^  ^^^^-^^et^JSI^  Qgttyr  of  Camp  Dodge, 
Iowa,  that  we  shall  quote  it  in  full. 

("In  commenting  on  the  'Psychology  of  Handling 
Men'  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  accomplished  by  'developing 
them  by  means  of  utilizing,  implicitly  or  explicitly,  their 
instinctive  impulses  of  competition  and  emulation  and 
incentives  of  loyalty  and  teamplay,'  an  idea  of  its  appli- 
cation may  be  gained  by  considering  the  development 
and  improvement  of  an  organization  of  which  one  takes 
command,  and  which  is  far  below  standard;  in  fact, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  'worst  company  in  the  regi- 


COMPETITION  33 

ment.'  As  long  as  the  men  in  it  recognize  and  admit  the 
fact,  just  so  long  it  is  sure  to  be.  To  improve  it  in 
a  military  way  is  possible  but  difficult.  You  cannot 
force  a  man  to  drill  with  *s«ap',  you  cannot  force  him 
to  shoot  well,  you  cannot  force  him  to  ride  well.  You 
have  to  inspire  his  confidence  in  himself  and  in  his  fel- 
lows to  accomplish  this.  He  knows  he  belongs  to  the 
worst  outfit  in  the  regiment ;  what's  the  use  ?  You  or- 
ganize a  football  or  a  baseball  team :  have  a  field  day. 
Nobody  has  told  the  company,  and  the  men  of  it  don't 
believe,  that  they  are  necessarily  hopeless  in  this  line. 
They  win  in  these  competitions ;  a  pride  in  themselves 
is  developed,  not  perhaps  as  deep  as  it  might  be,  but 
it's  there.  The  captain  says,  That's  some  company; 
we  showed  them  something/  The  men  say  it  them- 
selves; they  have  a  chance  to  commence  to  believe  in 
themselves.  We  beat  them  at  football,  we'll  show  them 
how  to  shoot. 

"You  have  your  start.  If  you  can  induce  the  worst 
company  in  the  regiment  to  believe  it  is  the  best,  not 
merely  tell  them  that  it  is,  but  make  them  believe  it,  the 
best  company  in  the  regiment  must  look  out,  jt  is  des- 
tined to  have  a  rival.  It  may  be  a  coincidence,  but  I 
don't  believe  it,  that  the  company  I  consider  the  best 
in  my  present  regiment  is  the  one  that  won  the  first 
regimental  field  day.  I  congratulated  the  captain  at  the 
time  and  told  him  that  he  was  most  fortunate  in  his 
start,  that  such  things  made  companies.  That  I  might 
not  consider  it  distinctly  my  own  idea  that  this  com- 
pany is  the  best,  I  just  asked  my  lieutenant  colonel 
which  was  the  best  company  in  the  regiment.  He  hesi- 
tated :  'It  isn't  easy  by  any  means  definitely  to  pick  out 
your  best  company,'  but  he  named  it  first.  A  few 
months  ago  our  division  commander  was  pleased 
with  the  double  time  of  our  regiment.  In  consequence, 
he  sent  us  in  from  drill  two  hours  ahead  of  time.  I 
heard  one  recruit  say  as  he  went  into  the  barracks, 


i 


34  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

We're  the  boys  that  can  double  time/  The  regiment 
always  will  double  time  well  as  long  as  that  spirit  pre- 
vails. 

"To  draw  conclusions  from  the  above:  You  have 
given  your  organization  its  start  through  athletics ;  you 
use  it  to  make  them  live  up  to  the  standard  at  which 
they  conceive  they  have  arrived;  and  they  arrive  at 
that  standard.  They  have  pride  as  individuals  in  their 
organization,  and  they  are  not  going  to  disgrace  it;  if 
the  individual  is  inclined  to  slip  back,  others  won't  let 
him.  They  may  persuade  him  into  not  disgracing  it, 
perhaps  by  moral  suasion  but  more  likely  by  physical. 
Twice  in  one  troop  has  it  come  to  my  knowledge  that 
the  physical  method  has  prevailed.  Once  the  troop 
conceived  that  one  of  its  members  needed  more,  or 
more  vigorous,  baths  than  he  was  taking.  The  men 
used  horse  brushes  and  sand  and  then  reported  that  the 
man  was  made  that  way,  they  couldn't  improve  him. 
Another  instance  was  where  a  man  was  turned  off 
guard  for  being  dirty.  The  most  worthless  man  in  the 
troop  undertook  to  and  did  thrash  him  with  a  watering 
bridle  for  disgracing  the  organization.  Now,  both  of 
these  instances  occurred  in  a  troop  that  had  been  in  ex- 
istence less  than  four  months;  it  was  during  the  re- 
organization in  1901,  and  but  one  man  who  had  ever 
soldiered  before  was  in  it.  These  two  occurrences  were 
within  ten  days  after  the  troop,  a  bunch  of  recruits, 
had  won  a  tent-pitching  contest  from  the  troop  which 
held  the  Army  record  at  the  time  for  this  same  event. 
It  had  evinced  no  troop  pride  prior  to  this ;  it  had  a 
superabundance  shortly  after,  as  the  above  would  in- 
dicate. I  knew  this  troop  for  seven  years,  and  during 
this  period  it  never  lost  a  field  day.  The  pride  of  or- 
ganization came  to  it  early  and  survived  as  long  as  I 
knew  it. 

"One  more  instance :  There  was  a  troop  of  cavalry 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  same  one  from  which  the 


COMPETITION  35 

recruit  troop  just  mentioned  had  obtained  its  start  by 
defeating  it  in  the  tent-pitching  contest.  It  had  been 
a  good  troop ;  there  was  none  better  in  the  service  when 
I  had  first  known  it  in  Dakota  years  before.  When  I 
saw  it  again  in  the  Philippines  it  was  awful.  It  was 
the  worst  troop  in  the  regiment,  and  the  men  them- 
selves knew  it.  No  member  of  it  would  deny  it  if  you 
told  him  it  was.  Where  it  could  be  undeniably  rated, 
as  in  rifle  firing,  the  records  showed  it  to  be  the  last. 
It  was  almost  a  year  after  I  first  saw  it  in  the  Islands 
that  it  had  a  chance  to  come  out  of  it.  It  didn't  win  a 
field  day,  but  it  did  win  a  standing  Roman  race  that 
was  particularly  exciting.  It  further  developed  that  the 
time  made  in  this  two-horse  race  with  the  rider  stand- 
ing was  a  second  faster  than  the  time  made  in  the  flat 
race  over  the  same  distance.  The  troop  commenced  to 
brag  about  itself.  Everybody  had  seen  them  win,  and 
they  did  the  talking  about  it.  They  commenced  to  take 
an  interest  in  themselves.  It  was  at  the  head  of  the 
regiment  in  rifle  firing  the  next  spring  instead  of  at  the 
tail  of  it,  as  it  was  the  year  before.  The  men  of  the 
troop  had  come  to  believe  in  themselves,  and  they  soon 
became  as  good  a  troop  as  the  regiment  had  known. 
At  Christmas,  1916,  I  received  their  Christmas  menu 
from  the  Border.  The  troop's  history  was  printed  on  it, 
by  no  means  a  usual  thing.  There  was  recorded  the 
number  of  times  they  had  headed  the  regiment  in  rifle 
shooting.  It  was  a  good  many  times,  because  in  the  old 
days  they  had  been  a  fine  shooting  outfit.  It  had  head- 
ed the  regiment  for  the  last  two  years  in  rifle  firing, 
and  had  won  the  regimental  cup  permanently.  It  had 
won  two  field  days  and  the  regimental  baseball  cham- 
pionship. The  menu  didn't  fail  to  mention  everything 
the  troop  had  won.  It  (the  troop)  was  proud  of  itself, 
and  it  had  a  right  to  be.  It  was  as  good  a  troop  as  you 
could  hope  for.  The  Roman  race  hadn't  done  all  of 
this,  but  had  furnished  the  start. 


36  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

"In  the  above  quoted  instances,  directly  and  in- 
directly, explicitly  and  implicitly,  the  impulses  of  com- 
petition and  emulation  had  developed  the  soldier  and 
made  a  better  soldier  of  him.     That  it  had  developed 
his  loyalty  to  his  organization,  which   in    the    Army 
means  teamplay,  is  without  question." 
*     Brigadier  General  S.  M.  Foote,  Camp  Dodge,  Iowa, 
calls  attention  to  the  need  of  developing  self-responsibil- 
ity in  the  soldier.     While  this  view  is  not  incompatible 
with  that  which  emphasizes  the  importance  of  competi- 
tion as  a  motivating  agency,  it  fortunately  points  out  an 
important  principle  not  to  be  overlooked  in  the  training 
of  men  for  warfare  and  for  life  generally,  that  of  giving 
a  proper  perspective  and  an  organization  of  the  impulses 
more  immediately  aroused  that  will  fit  men  to   stand 
against  obstacles  for  remote  ends.     Competition  should 
be  so  managed  as  to  throw  one  on  one's  own  responsi- 
bility and  resources  as  far  as  possible,  and  yet  care  must 
be  taken  under  present  conditions  not  to  eliminate  too 
many  men  by  this  method.    All  behavior  must,  however, 
grow  out  of  instinctive  impulses  of  some  sort.    General 
Foote  says : 

"I  think  you  are  entirely  right  in  your  assumption 
that  the  principle  impulse  to  which  military  men  are 
accustomed  to  appeal  is  that  of  competition.  In  this 
connection  there  is  one  point  to  which  I  wish  to  call 
your  attention,  a  point  that  is  sometimes  lost  sight  of. 
Each  officer  and  each  man  must  realize  that  his  ef- 
ficiency in  the  end  must  depend  upon  his  own  indi- 
vidual effort.  In  other  words,  he  is  himself  responsible 
for  what  he  is  and  what  he  becomes.  The  instructor 
points  out  the  way:  it  is  the  pupil's  business  to>  pro- 
ceed, utilizing  his  own  faculties  in  case  of  any  diffi- 
culties encountered.  This  is  a  very  different  opera- 
tion from  taking  by  the  hand  and  leading  one  along. 
However,  in  case  of  some  men  it  is  necessary  in  the 
early  stages  of  their  development  to  lead  them  by  the 


COMPETITION  37 

hand.  *  *  *  With  the  men  that  have  to  be 
formed  into  an  army  in  a  short  time  considerable  as- 
sistance must  be  given,  but  at  the  same  time  my  idea 
has  always  been  that  even  in  those  cases  the  men 
should  be  impressed  with  the  idea  of  self-re- 
sponsibility. So  much  is  being  done  for  the  men  in  the 
army  that  I  am  afraid  there  will  be  instances  of  'Molly- 
coddling' which  is  the  last  thing  on  earth  we  want.  So 
I  think  it  important  to  impress  upon  them  all  that  ef- 
forts that  are  made  in  their  behalf  are  made  to  assist 
them  to  attain  a  higher  standard  and  not  to  take  the 
place  of  their  own  effort." 


CHAPTER  III 
PLAY 

1 
•i     Years  ago  there  was  a  tendency  among  a  great  many 

people  to  consider  the  time  spent  at  play  and  recreation 
as  time  lost,  but  now  it  is  generally  recognized  that  play 
is  one  of  the  main  means  of  human  growth  and  develop- 
ment, both  physical  and  mental.  The  War  Department 
has  recognized  the  value  of  play  by  authorizing  the  es- 
tablishment of  athletic  departments  in  the  various  train- 
ing camps  so  that  each  camp  has  at  present  its  athletic 
director,  boxing  instructors,  football  and  other  athletic 
coaches. 

It  took  some  time  for  the  large  industrial  enterprises 
employing  thousands  of  men  to  recognize  the  importance 
of  play.  The  old  theory  was  to  get  as  much  work  as 
possible  out  of  the  men  between  morning  and  evening  and 
to  let  them  shift  for  themselves  so  far  as  their  recreation 
was  concerned.  Then  a  few  of  the  larger  firms  awoke  to 
the  fact  that  if  their  men  received  proper  recreation  they 
would  work  more  efficiently  and  be  more  contented.  They 
also  found  that  by  providing  opportunities  for  recreation 
and  by  developing  their  own  teams  for  contests  with 
other  organizations  and  institutions  they  could  develop 
bonds  of  good  fellowship  among  their  men  and  a 
strong  esprit  de  corps;  by  such  means  the  men  would  iden- 
tify themselves  with  the  interests  of  the  firm  and  would 
work  for  its  success  and  prestige.  So  now  we  have  a 
corporation  like  the  National  Cash  Register  Company, 
employing  thousands  of  workers,  with  a  full  recreational 
equipment,  including  baseball  diamonds,  a  stable  for 
horses  for  the  employes  to  ride,  vast  stretches  of  fertile 
soil  for  them  to  use  for  gardening,  swimming  pools,  bil- 


J, 


PLAY  39 

Hard  rooms,  and  many  other  means  of  recreation.  The 
firm  has  found  that  the  men  are  more  enthusiastic  and 
do  better  work  as  a  result  of  these  conditions.  Many 
other  companies  are  learning  the  same  lesson.  It  is 
after  all  nothing  more  than  showing  a  larger  human 
interest  in  their  employes  and  in  their  general  welfare, 
and  in  return  they  are  getting  the  sympathy  and  the 
teamwork  that  such  personal  interest  and  attention  are 
bound  to  stimulate. 

That  play  goes  hand  in  hand  with  strenuous  work  is 
illustrated  by  observing  the  life  of  ex-President  Roose- 
velt. His  memoirs  show  that  the  more  strenuous  his 
work  at  Washington  was  the  more  he  felt  the  need  of 
tennis  playing,  and  this  form  of  play  fitted  into  each 
day's  program.  His  many  hunting  expeditions  have 
given  him  the  double  distinction  of  being  not  only  a 
leader  in  politics,  but  also  a  leader  in  a  large  sense  among 
sportsmen.  Indeed,  it  appears  generally  in  life  that  the 
individual  who  plays  most  heartily  is  usually  the  one  who 
thinks  the  best  and  fights  the  hardest. 

A  short  time  ago  I  had  occasion  to  drill  a  number  of 
new  recruits,  none  of  whom  had  ever  received  any  pre- 
vious military  training.  At  the  end  of  three  days,  during 
which  time  I  had  been  teaching  them  the  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  the  squad  movements,  facings,  etc.,  I  was  struck 
by  the  rapid  progress  made  by  some  of  the  men  and  the 
backwardness  of  others.  This  condition  aroused  my  curi- 
osity to  find  out  the  reason  for  the  great  difference  in 
aptitude  exhibited  by  the  men;  so  I  took  a  list  of  those 
men  who  had  displayed  the  most  progress,  and  then  I 
asked  all  the  men  who  had  ever  had  any  training  in  ath- 
letics or  who  had  taken  part  in  such  games  as  football 
and  baseball  to  take  one  step  forward.  Although  I  had 
expected  something  of  the  kind  I  was  surprised  to  find 
that  the  men  who  stepped  forward  were  those  men  who 
had  exhibited  the  most  aptitude  at  drill,  almost  to  a  man. 
Another  illustration  that  occurs  to  me  shows  the  effect 


40  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

that  play  has  toward  easing  off  a  mental  strain,  and  thus 
toward  leaving  the  individual  better  fitted  for  the  task  at 
hand.  During  the  summer  of  1914  I  happened  to  be  a 
member  of  one  of  the  crews  representing  the  Minnesota 
Boat  Club  at  the  Northwestern  regatta  held  at  Kenora, 
Canada,  on  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  The  regatta  lasted 
three  days,  and  the  first  two  days  were  gala  days  for  the 
Duluth  Boat  Club.  They  had  made  a  clean  sweep  of  all 
races.  We  had  only  one  crew  left  that  had  not  been  de- 
feated, and  their  spirits  were  so  low  on  the  morning  of  the 
last  race,  and  the  mental  strain  of  the  first  two  days  had 
wrought  such  havoc  with  them,  that  optimism  was  at  a 
low  ebb.  Our  coach  must  have  realized  that  what  the 
men  needed  was  mental  relaxation,  for  that  morning  he 
allowed  us  to  go  swimming  for  a  short  time,  which  was 
against  all  rules  of  training.  One  could  see,  however, 
that  the  men  benefited  by  it.  Everybody's  spirits  seemed 
to  rise,  and  that  afternoon  our  junior  four  won  their  race. 
These  may  of  course  be  mere  coincidences,  or  selected 
cases,  but  they  seem  to  be  common  enough  to  have  signifi- 
cance and  valuable  suggestions  to  the  leader  of  men. 
From  reports  we  get  from  France,  it  appears  that  the 
English  have  encouraged  the  playing  of  a  number  of  their 
national  athletic  games  behind  the  lines.  A  British  officer 
told  me  that  a  game  of  rugby  was  the  best  means  of  get- 
ting one's  mind  off  his  work  and  of  thus  securing  com- 
plete mental  relaxation  while  resting  behind  the  lines. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  baseball  will  be  on  the  bill  of 
fare  for  our  soldiers  while  in  France. 

Now  while  our  training  camps  are  equiped  with  ath- 
letic directors,  the  officer  will  find  as  a  result  of  his  in- 
fluence over  the  men  while  in  close  touch  with  them, 
that  he  will  have  many  opportunities  to  direct  the  play 
activities  of  the  men  and  to  encourage  them  to  participate 
in  the  games.  In  order  to  encourage  play  at  the  proper 
times  and  to  apply  the  proper  stimulation  for  play  it  is 
desirable  that  the  successful  officer  understands  the  the- 


PLAY  41 

ory  of  play  and  the  psychological  principles  underlying  it. 

II 

It  seems,  and  is  now  generally  agreed,  that  the  im- 
pulse to  play  is  not  only  innate  in  man,  but  that  it  has  its 
roots  well  established  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Practi- 
cally all  animals  have  their  plays,  which  occupy  no  small 
part  of  the  life  activities.  This  being  the  case,  play 
must  have  some  important  function  in  the  life  of  animals 
and  man ;  for  nature  is  not  so  wasteful  as  to  implant  in 
animals  of  all  kinds  so  generally  as  play  appears,  im- 
pulses to  a  large  amount  of  useless  activity.  There  is 
objection  to  calling  play  an  instinct,  for  play  activities 
express  themselves  in  almost  all  conceivable  ways.  Often 
young  animals  are  seen  playing  as  they  must  later  "work" 
or  fight  for  the  preservation  of  their  lives.  Nevertheless 
playing  in  many  respects  is  much  like  such  other  unques- 
tionably innate  dispositions  as  express  themselves  in 
sneezing,  mating,  caring  for  offspring,  getting  angry, 
quaking  with  fear,  etc.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
nature  has  fashioned  man  so  that  he  must  play  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  just  as  he  must  sneeze  under  others. 

What  then  may  the  function  of  play  be?  Careful 
studies  of  play  have  shown  that  play  affords  exercise  and 
develops  physical  strength,  alertness,  skill  in  defense  and 
attack,  endurance,  leadership  and  subordination,  or  divi- 
sion of  responsibility,  and  detailed  acquaintance  with 
one's  fellows  beyond  that  which  can  be  obtained  in  most 
any  other  manner.  A  quotation  from  Baldwin,  who  has 
given  much  time  to  the  study  of  the  social  bearings  of 
play,  is  pertinent:  "Dogs  in  their  play  at  fighting  often 
set  numbers  against  swiftness  of  force,  and  exchange 
parts  in  the  midst  of  the  game,  the  chaser  being  chased, 
etc.  Birds  in  the  same  flock  will  unite  to  storm  a  tree 
where  a  fancied  [  ?]  enemy  is  perched,  just  as  they  com- 
bine against  a  real  enemy  when  he  has  the  tree  to  himself. 
*  *  *  1^  extended  'make  believe'  of  animals — 
for  example  in  pretending  to  bite  one  another,  with  the 


42  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

elaborate  responses  of  pretended  [  ?]  anger  and  attack — 
shows  invaluable  practice  in  varying  and  understanding 
quasi-social  relations  and  situations.  Mock  fighting, 
sometimes  very  elaborate,  is  widespread  in  nature ;  ducks 
play  at  fighting  on  the  water,  birds  in  the  air,  animals 
injure  one  another  in  their  playful  zeal.  The  remarkable 
phenomena  of  leadership  show  just  the  results  to  be  ex- 
pected from  game  exercises.  In  certain  packs  of  dogs, 
in  the  words  of  Hudson,  'from  the  foremost  in  strength 
and  power  down  to  the  weakest,  there  is  a  gradation  in 
authority;  each  one  knows  just  how  far  he  can  go,  which 
companion  he  can  bully  when  he  is  in  a  bad  temper 
*  *  *  and  to  which  he  must  yield  in  his  turn/  " 
(Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations,  pp.  150  and  151). 
All  this  can  be  applied  to  the  human  animal  with  only 
slight  changes  in  the  applications. 

Even  in  the  case  of  man  play  is  still  a  prime  educa- 
'tor  and  trainer  in  the  practical  and  social  affairs  of  life. 
As  Baldwin  so  well  shows,  it  develops  resourcefulness  of 
mind  and  body  with  self-control ;  it  overcomes  awkward- 
ness and  ill  temper  and  supplants  them  with  well  bal- 
anced co-ordinations  and  control  of  the  emotions  in  criti- 
cal situations ;  it  affords  capital  opportunity  for  the  train- 
ing in  initiation  and  in  devising  new  modes  of  attack  and 
defense,  and  in  the  manipulation  of  other  persons  and  of 
materials ;  it  compels  careful  observation  and  imitation 
of  the  more  successful  methods  and  means  of  superiors, 
and  affords  ample  opportunity  for  the-  constant  practice 
on  others  of  new  ideas  gained ;  it  affords  one  of  the  very 
best  means  known  of  a  proper  understanding  and  esti- 
mate of  one's  self,  both  of  the  strong  and  the  weak  points 
as  well  as  of  the  possibilities.  Furthermore,  it  takes  the 
mind  of  the  adult  man,  pressed  with  business  and  pro- 
fessional worries,  from  his  cares  and  loses  him  wholly 
for  the  time  in  absorbing  mental  and  physical  activity. 
It  thereby  releases  inner  tensions  and  distressing  con- 
flicts and  gives  the  most  wholesome  and  varied  exercise 


PLAY  43 

and  practice  in  skillful  performances.  A  short  time  daily 
devoted  to  play  not  only  safeguards  one  against  various 
common  mental  and  physical  ills,  but  it  also  implants  a 
bouyant  spirit,  an  optimistic  bearing  expressive  of  effi- 
ciency and  confidence.  To  the  soldier  it  is  of  prime  im- 
portance ;  it  makes  not  only  good  citizens  but  good,  effi- 
cient, optimistic  and  moral  soldiers. 

That  play  has  a  survival  value  in  the  biological 
struggle  for  existence,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Those  ani- 
mals which  in  their  youth  play  at  various  kinds  of  ac- 
tivity gain  strength  and  efficiency,  as  well  as  adaptability, 
which  enable  them  to  out-do  animals  with  different  ten- 
dencies. The  result  is  that  they  live  to  reproduce  their 
kind,  and  so  play  impulses  become  innate.  It  is  not  as- 
sumed, of  course,  that  specific  effects  of  play  are  trans- 
mitted in  heredity ;  only  that  individual  variations  in  the 
germ  plasm,  due  in  the  main  to  yet  unknown  causes,  pre- 
dispose certain  animals  to  play  more  than  others  and  that 
these  animals  are  favored,  as  they  obviously  must  be,  in 
the  struggle  with  their  fellows.  General  effects  upon 
health  and  energy  may  conceivably  be  transmitted,  how- 
ever. Even  in  our  own  civilized  race,  where  the  weak  are 
protected,  those  who  play  most  regularly  and  whole- 
heartedly doubtless  escape  many  diseases  and  ills  which 
eliminate  others.  In  time  this  "natural  selection"  even  in 
the  human  race  amounts  to  not  a  little. 

There  are,  however,  as  has  been  mentioned,  objections 
to  calling  play  a  specific  instinct,  because  of  the  wide  vari- 
ation in  its  forms  of  expression.  Any  kind  of  activity  can 
under  favorable  circumstances  take  on  the  consciousness 
or  attitude  of  completeness  in  itself  without  considera- 
tion of  ulterior  ends  or  results,  which  characterizes  play 
as  distinct  from  work.  While  in  a  sense  there  is  a 
wholesome  feeling  of  "don't  have  to"  about  play,  it  can 
well  be  contended  that  in  other  respects  play  is  even  more 
serious,  more  soul-absorbing  and  earnest,  more  whole- 
hearted and  genuine,  nay,  more  nearly  "real  life"  than  is 


44  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

work.  Children  are  more  concerned  about  fairness  in 
play  than  in  work.  Fortunate  is  he  who  makes  of  life  it- 
self a  big,  cheerful  game  played  absolutely  on  the  square ! 

We  shall  speak  of  play  as  an  impulse,  an  impulse  to 
do  various  things  without  the  direct  compulsion  of  neces- 
sity or  of  reason,  an  impulse  to  assume  with  respect  to 
most  any  kind  of  activity  the  true  art  attitude  of  satisfac- 
tion in  the  activity  itself.  Think  again  of  the  sneeze  which 
is  pleasant  and  satisfying  in  itself,  complete  without  the 
consideration  of  bringing  about  certain  results,  done 
simply  because  under  the  conditions  of  'stimulation  it  is 
the  most  natural  thing  in  the  world  to  do,  justification  for 
which  is  unnecessary  and  the  thought  of  or  request  for  it 
absurd. 

When  several  individuals  play  together,  play  usually 
takes  on  the  form  of  games,  involving  either  individual  or 
group  competition.  The  mere  play  impulse  furnishes  an 
excellent  motivation  to  competition,  along  with  self-as- 
sertion, and  possibly  rivalry,  as  we  have  already  noted  in 
the  previous  chapter.  It  is  in  group-play  contests  espe- 
cially that  various  of  the  socializing  and  developmental  in- 
fluences of  play  appear  at  their  best.  As  would  be  ex- 
pected from  the  biological  utility  and  origin  of  the  play 
impulse,  play  frequently  takes  on  the  form  of  combats 
and  of  hunting.  Fighting  plays  are  noticeable  in  animals 
of  nearly  all  kinds,  and  have  been  carefully  studied  by 
Groos  in  his  interesting  book,  The  Play  of  Animals. 
Teasing  and  bullying,  scuffling,  biting,  chasing  and  being 
chased  are  noticeable  as  chief  and  absorbing  play  activi- 
ties among  animals  on  every  hand, — birds,  kittens,  rats, 
puppies,  colts,  monkeys,  and  so  on.  Hunting  plays  take 
on  the  form  of  playing  with  real  living  booty,  as  kittens 
with  mice,  the  latter  trying  of  course  to  save  themselves ; 
with  "inanimate  play  booty";  and  with  "play  living 
booty".  In  the  last  two  cases  the  play  booty  taken  in 
the  game  is  imagined  as  inanimate  and  as  alive,  respect- 
ively. All  these  forms  of  play  are,  of  course,  represented 


PLAY  45 

in  human  games.  In  addition  to  them  various  kinds  of 
contests  (backed  by  impulses  of  self-assertion,  rivalry  and 
pugnacity)  occupy  a  large  part  in  the  human  program  of 
plays. 

There  are  also  among  children  plays  of  caring  for 
offspring,  plays  with  dolls  and  plays  that  some  members 
of  the  play  group  themselves  are  children  of  certain  play 
parents,  and  plays  of  caring  for  the  sick  and  helpless. 
Here,  of  course,  imitation  and  experience  are  influential ; 
but  this  only  shows  how  adaptable  this  play  impulse  is. 
how  it  is  influenced  by  acts  going  on  about  the  individual, 
making  him  copy  and  practice  in  play  the  acts  which  are 
later  in  life  to  be  serious  work  for  the  preservation  of 
the  individual  and  race.  In  plays  children  assume  the  role 
of  various  classes  of  adult  workers  about  them,  as  when 
a  boy  plays  police.  In  such  cases  they  necessarily  be- 
come very  careful  observers  of  the  behavior  of  those 
whom  they  represent  and  so  make  valuable  additions  to 
their  own  experience  and  knowledge,  additions  which 
are  bound  to  serve  them  well  in  future  years  of  respon- 
sibility. 

Thus  in  the  higher  types  of  animals,  especially  man,* 
whose  life  extends  over  a  long  period  through  changing 
seasons,  all  the  important  acts  for  the  preservation  of 
life  are  represented  in  play.  Play  develops  and  strength- 
ens the  plastic  individual  for  the  exigencies  of  the  life 
struggle  as  probably  no  other  educative  agency  can  do. 
The  person  who  has  not  taken  a  normal  part  in  the 
plays  of  childhood  usually  shows  abnormalities  that  more 
or  less  seriously  hamper  him  later  in  life.  While  these 
defects  are  not  necessarily  the  results  of  lack  of  play 
they  show  at  least  that  play  tendencies  are  found  at  their 
best  with  the  highest  individual  efficiency,  and  few  indi- 
viduals would  dispute  the  assertion  that  a  normal  child 
deprived  of  play  with  the  social  contact,  the  exercises, 
and  the  various  types  of  training  that  it  affords  would  be 
seriously  handicapped  in  adult  life  among  his  fellows. 


46  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

It  is  unfortunate  that  most  people  think  of  play  as 
only  for  the  child.  In  the  animal  world  adults  do  not 
cease  to  play.  Old  work  horses  may  often  be  seen  playing 
when  free.  The  all-too-prevalent  view  that  one's  work 
supplies  the  necessary  exercise  reflects  a  narrow  attitude 
toward  play  that  is  not  found  among  the  men  taking  the 
bigger  burdens  of  life's  duties.  Play  affords  much  more 
various  and  whole-hearted  exercise  than  does  work,  which 
usually  settles  down  to  more  or  less  of  mechanical 
routine;  but,  as  has  been  shown,  play  does  many  things 
for  the  individual  besides  exercising  him.  The  most 
important  effect  of  play  on  a  person  is  psychic, 
and  consists  in  release  from  deadening  worries  and  a 
general  increase  in  optimism  and  love  of  the  game  of 
life.  The  adult  person,  even  the  soldier,  is  prone  to  fall 
into  a  more  or  less  apathetic  routine.  Play  tends  to  keep 
him  adaptable  and  to  prolong  the  characteristics  of 
youth,  the  results  being  greater  self-confidence  and  effi- 
ciency and  an  air  of  contentment  that  undoubtedly  makes 
for  health  and  prolonged  life. 

The  over-strains  of  trench  life  and  the  general  anxiety 
and  nerve  exhaustion  brought  about  by  the  war  have  re- 
sulted in  the  appearance  of  frequent  cases  of  a  new  men- 
tal disease  typified  by  what  is  known  as  "shell-shock". 
The  soldier  is  worn  out  by  the  persistence  of  the  diffi- 
culties before  him ;  they  allow  no  real  relief,  no  complete 
relaxation.  He  cannot  see  his  way  through  the  terrible 
obstacles,  strains,  and  unrelenting  anxiety.  His  life  im- 
pulses are  dammed  up,  impeded,  with  no  good  prospects 
of  relief  in  the  near  future  from  the  fearful  task.  The 
end  of  it  all  cannot  often  be  seen  through  the  hardships. 
This  unyielding  situation,  with  the  strains  and  exhaustion 
of  the  soldier's  life  in  the  trenches,  results  not  infrequent- 
ly in  certain  disorganizations  of  the  nervous  system,  in 
"shell-shock"  and  other  neuroses. 

Now,  as  a  prophylactic  against  such  an  unfortunate 
condition,  as  a  safety  valve  for  the  pent-up  impulses  to 


PLAY  47 

express  themselves  in  more  natural  life  activities,  as  a 
relaxation  from  the  terrible  anxiety  of  trench  life,  and 
as  a  stimulus  to  optimism  and  courage,  play  stands  su- 
preme. Our  ordinary  work  and  our  righting  activities  are 
all  performed  for  the  attainment  of  some  desired  end; 
they  are  not  indulged  in  for  their  own  sakes.  If  this  end 
eludes  us  continually,  proves  to  be  difficult  of  attainment, 
we  are  put  under  strains  of  anxiety.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  when  the  desired  end  is  very  important  as  is  the 
case  in  the  winning  of  a  war  for  freedom.  Everything 
else  in  life  to  follow  the  attainment  of  the  great  end 
sought  is  conditional.  It  is  like  expecting  needed  money 
day  after  day  with  no  clue  as  to  when  it  may  come !  No 
clear  way  is  open  before  one.  This  causes  inner  conflict 
of  impulses,  strains  and  worries  that  are  exhaustive  to 
the  nerves.  Worry  is  made  up  of  conflicting  impulses, 
confused  and  opposing  tendencies  to  do  several  things. 
Try  for  about  five  minutes,  as  you  read  on,  to  push  gently 
but  steadily  with  the  right  hand  against  the  pull  of  the 
left,  and  see  how  exhausted  the  arms  will  feel.  Note 
how  much  the  sensations  resemble  those  experienced  in 
extreme  anxiety  and  worry,  except  that  the  former  are 
more  localized. 

Against  such  strains  of  anxiety  there  is  no  relief  but 
sleep  and  play.  The  mind  will  otherwise  not  cease  dwell- 
ing on  the  situation.  The  pull  and  push  will  not  abate. 
Often  sleep  is  entirely  impossible.  "The  man  who  has 
ceased  to  play  is  to  be  pitied."  (Seashore,  Psychology 
in  Daily  Life,  p.  14).  Play  brings  relaxation;  it  finds  an 
outlet  for  all  pent-up,  repressed  impulses.  It  seeks  no 
ulterior  ends,  but  makes  life  here  and  now  self-sufficient 
and  complete  as  the  moments  go  by.  Even  in  a  game  by 
amateurs  the  "results"  are  not  important ;  the  competition 
goes  on  not  for  the  results  per  se — for  the  consideration 
of  "who  beats?" — but  to  enliven  and  stimulate  the  acts 
themselves,  to  give  zest  to  the  game.  In  the  play  itself 
as  it  goes  on  we  have  the  reward ;  play,  like  art,  is  self- 


48  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

sufficient,  self-satisfying.  He  who  does  not  know  how  to 
play  does  not  know  what  real  life  is,  life  as  nature  "in- 
tended" it  to  be ;  to  such  an  individual  life  is  always  some- 
thing ahead  of  him,  something  for  which  to  work  and 
to  sacrifice  immediate  pleasures.  Not  so  with  the  per- 
son for  whom  life  is  a  fine,  big  game;  for  him  every 
moment  is  rich  and  full  in  itself.  Play  banishes  for  the 
time  all  thoughts  of  worry  and  anxiety,  all  occasion  for 
this  future  longing.  It  does  more  than  to  make  the  nega- 
tive contribution  of  affording  relaxation  from  strain.  It 
unifies  and  mutually  inter-stimulates  the  various  organic 
impulses.  It  fills  one  with  an  indescribable  feeling  of 
youthfulness  and  fulness  of  life  that  cannot  be  a  failure. 
The  habit  of  play  results  in  permanent  attitudes  of  ela- 
tion and  contentment,  and  it  gives  fortitude  and  endur- 
ance against  hardships.  The  whole  soul  is  thrown  into 
play  without  any  reservation  whatever,  when  it  is  real 
play.  That  is  sportsmanship ;  not  the  kind  of  play  that 
glories  too  much  in  victory  as  such  or  that  retrospec- 
tively regrets  defeat.  When  a  real  game  is  over,  it's  done 
for,  once  for  all. 

This  is  the  kind  of  activity  that  makes  against  shell- 
shock  and  other  nervous  diseases  and  anxieties  in  trench 
life,  against  "mental  break-down"  of  the  various  sorts 
and  lack  of  self-confidence  and  efficiency  in  the  busy  whir 
of  life  in  the  civilized  world.  If  there  is  a  "fountain  of 
youth"  it  is  play,  for  play  not  only  brings  relaxation  from 
drudgery,  anxiety  and  ennui  and  prevents  mental  dis-ease 
and  depression,  but  it  undoubtedly  prolongs  many  youth- 
ful, care-free  attitudes.  Play  habits  and  tendencies  are 
synonymous  with  versatility,  sociability,  personal  influ- 
ence, optimism,  vigor  and  courage.  Play  brightens  life 
and  makes  it  unnecessary  to  ask  what  it  is  all  for  or  what 
is  the  highest  aim  of  life ;  it  shows  its  effects  in  one's  gen- 
eral bearing,  giving  a  quickness  and  decisiveness  of  step 
and  movement  even  to  old  limbs.  The  incentives  to  play 
are  the  cry  of  nature  in  us  to  varied  activity,  the  call  away 


PLAY  49 

from  too  long  concentration  and  anxiety,  and  it  is  cer- 
tainly desirable,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency 
and  from  that  of  humanity,  that  the  soldiers  who  are 
compelled  by  the  interests  of  their  country  and  of  democ- 
racy to  endure  hardships  and  monotony,  to  pound  away 
at  almost  unyielding  obstacles  under  danger  and  severe 
exposure  which  try  them  to  the  extreme,  should  not  only 
be  privileged  but  encouraged  to  play  frequently  and 
whole-heartedly. 

in 

To  our  question,  "Do  you  encourage  play  and  ath- 
letic contests  among  your  men?"  every  answer  from  dif- 
ferent army  officers  was  in  the  affirmative.  Here  are 
some  typical  replies : 

"I  have  always  encouraged  participation  in  athlet- 
ics by  the  members  of  my  company.  Where  a  gymnas- 
ium has  not  been  provided,  I  have  purchased  apparatus 
for  instruction  in  the  barrack  or  on  company  play- 
grounds, providing  for  boxing  gloves  and  ring,  base- 
ball and  football  equipment  and  any  other  articles 
which  I  found  were  desired  by  the  men.  I  have  always 
found  that  money  spent  in  this  way  gave  very  good  re- 
turns." 

"Play  and  athletic  contests  are  encouraged  and  to 
some  extent  are  compulsory.  A  play  period  is  part  of 
the  daily  schedule.  During  this  period  the  men  take 
part  in  various  games  fitted  to  give  quickness  of  mind 
and  body  under  the  supervision  of  their  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  one  commissioned  officer  who  is 
designated  as  athletic  officer  of  the  battalion.  Also 
each  company  has  its  hour  in  the  post  gymnasium 
where  the  men  wrestle,  box,  play  basketball,  etc." 

"Games  and  athletic  contests  in  the  army  are  hav- 
ing more  stress  laid  on  them  now  than  ever  before. 
Each  company  is  supplied  with  an  athletic  box  which 
contains  all  the  paraphernalia  for  all  the  leading  Ameri- 
can athletics.  There  is  great  rivalry  between  the  dif- 


SO  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

ferent  regiments  and  even  the  different  camps,  and  it 

is  encouraged  in  every  way  possible." 

Appendix  IX  of  Major  F.  R.  McCoy's  Principles  of 
Military  Training  (Vol.  Ill  of  Collier's  National  Servcie 
Library,  1917),  gives  a  form  for  an  "Order  for  Athletic 
Competition  and  Other  Amusements,"  which  bears  out 
these  replies  and  shows  that  the  forms  of  amusement  and 
recreation  not  here  considered  are  various.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  officers  who  fully  appreciate  the 
importance  of  these  aspects  of  the  soldier's  life  will  find 
them  great  aids  in  improving  the  general  morale  of  the 
army.  It  is  important  to  note  that  athletics,  like  other 
forms  of  training,  must  have  a  purpose  and  must  develop 
snap  and  alertness  in  the  men  that  will  carry  over  into 
their  more  serious  performances. 


CHAPTER  IV 

TEAMPLAY 
i 

Closely  related  to  competition  and  play,  both  of  which 
are  agencies  of  developing  it,  is  teamplay,  or  teamwork 
as  some  persons  prefer  to  call  it.  Every  one  knows  some- 
thing of  what  teamplay  is  and  has  at  some  time  or  other 
participated  in  the  teamplay  of  some  group  or  organiza- 
tion, but  many  individuals  do  not  fully  realize  the  great 
importance  of  teamplay  in  all  forms  of  group  activity. 

Recently  in  conversation  with  an  old  experienced 
army  officer  I  asked  him  if  he  laid  any  emphasis  on  team- 
play  in  training  his  men.  "No,  I  can't  say  that  I  did," 
was  the  reply,  and  it  somewhat  surprised  me.  Then  he 
began  relating  some  of  the  methods  he  has  used  in  train- 
ing his  men.  He  said  that  when  a  new  recruit  came  into 
the  company  he  would  place  him  in  a  squad  and  impress 
upon  him  the  fact  that  he  was  Number  Three,  for  in- 
stance, of  that  squad ;  that  he  must  execute  all  the  steps 
and  movements  required  of  Number  Three;  that  no  one 
could  do  it  for  him ;  and  that  if  he  did  not  do  it  correctly 
he  would  spoil  the  drill  of  the  entire  company.  He  made 
it  plain  to  the 'recruit  that  the  entire  company  was  de- 
pendent on  him  to  make  certain  movements  for  the  ef- 
fective co-operation  of  all.  It  is  plain  that  this  officer, 
while  not  explicitly  realizing  it,  was  impressing  upon  the 
new  recruit  from  the  very  start  the  importance  of  team- 
play. 

Lieutenant  Colonel  Lincoln  Andrews,  U.  S.  A.,  in  his 
work  on  the  Fundamentals  of  Military  Service  says :  "In 
battle,  and  in  the  preparation  for  battle,  there  are  but 
rare  occasions  for  'individual  plays'.  Success  may  be 
obtained  only  through  the  most  unselfish  playing  for  the 

51 


52  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

team.  And  not  only  must  the  elements  of  each  organiza- 
tion thus  work  together,  but  the  different  arms,  infantry, 
cavalry  and  artillery,  must  often  sacrifice  brilliant  op- 
portunities and  even  meet  local  defeats,  loyally  working 
for  the  common  good  of  the  whole  team.  Thus  each  unit, 
from  an  army  down  to  a  squad,  is  considered  and  trained 
as  a  team,  each  under  its  own  .team  captain." 
\/  Teamplay  has  always  been  one  of  the  predominating 
features  in  the  best  armies.  History  bristles  with  illus- 
trations of  where  individuals,  carried  away  by  the  enthu- 
siasm of  teamplay,  have  made  brilliant  personal  sacrifices 
for  the  good  and  welfare  of  their  companies,  and  likewise 
where  companies  have  attempted  the  impossible  for  the 
sake  of  the  reputation  of  their  regiments. 

Success  in  any  line  where  groups  of  men  are  em- 
ployed depends  mainly  on  the  teamplay  developed.  This 
fact  is  quite  apparent  to  one  who  has  played  football, 
baseball  or  basketball.  Football  perhaps  furnishes  us 
with  the  best  example  of  this  principle.  We  know  that 
in  the  well-drilled  football  team,  you  have  the  physical 
strength  and  mental  alertness  and  ingenuity  of  eleven 
men  condensed  into  one  unit,  the  team.  Who  has  not 
observed  the  working  out  of  this  principle  in  a  football 
game,  wherein  one  team  was  composed  of  star  players 
who  had  had  little  practice  together  as  a  team  and  the 
other  team  had  had  the  benefit  of  a  season's  drill,  with 
the  teamplay  that  it  brings?  A  visit  to  the  gymnasium 
during  a  blackboard  talk  on  football,  will  illustrate  how 
each  play  is  planned  out,  how  each  player  has  a  certain 
thing  to  do  at  a  certain  time. 

Our  great  American  industrial  enterprises  that  em- 
ploy armies  of  workers  have  recognized  the  need  and  im- 
portance of  developing  teamplay  and  co-operation  among 
their  men.  No  better  examples  of  this  modern  tendency 
are  to  be  found  than  the  Ford  Automobile  plants,  the 
Harvester  Industry  and  the  Bell  Telephone  System,  all 
of  which  have  placed  their  employes  on  a  profit-sharing 


TEAMPLAY  53 

basis,  which  in  turn  awakens  in  the  employe  a  desire  to 
do  the  best  he  can  for  the  welfare  of  the  company. 
These  companies  constantly  point  out  to  their  men  the 
necessity  of  each  doing  his  part  without  a  hitch. 

Teamplay,  however,  means  something  more  than  the 
concentration  of  effort.  It  leads  to  a  fine  spirit  of  friend- 
liness among  the  men,  to  cementing  together  the  bonds  of 
good  fellowship,  and  in  the  army  to  fighting  spirit  popu- 
larly known  as  esprit  de  corps. 

The  leader  is  fortunate  indeed  who  recognizes  the  im- 
portance of  teamplay  and  bends  every  effort  to  develop  it 
among  his  men.  In  our  army  especially,  which  is  com- 
posed of  so  many  races  of  men  from  all  walks  of  life, 
teamplay  should  be  harped  upon  continually.  Statistics 
show  that  a  certain  percentage  of  the  men  who  are  being 
drafted  into  the  army  have  been  taken  over  their  exemp- 
tion claims,  and  the  best  that  one  can  expect  on  their 
arrival  in  the  training  camps  is  a  passive  state  of  mind, 
so  it  becomes  incumbent  on  the  officers  to  develop  group 
enthusiasm  and  co-operation  in  the  men  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, and  there  is  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  best  ways  of 
doing  it  is  to  get  each  interested  in  his  own  particular 
company. 

One  of  the  first  and  most  important  duties  of  the 
leader  or  officer  is  to  develop  teamplay  in  his  organiza- 
tion. President  Wilson,  on  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war,  realizing  the  value  and  necessity  of 
teamplay,  called  upon  Congress  to  lay  aside  all  internal 
differences  and  party  lines  and  act  as  a  single  unit  for 
the  sake  of  the  Country.  It  was  teamplay  that  strength- 
ened that  small  band  of  Belgians,  making  it  possible  for 
them  to  withstand  for  days  the  onslaught  of  the  largest 
army  that  history  had  ever  recorded. 

ii 

A  good  way  of  stating  the  differences  between  a 
normal,  efficient  man  and  one  that  is  mentally  defective 
is  to  say  that  the  co-ordinations  of  the  former  are  better. 


54  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

Let  us  think  of  co-ordination  in  the  larger  sense  of  the 
term.  The  normal  man  recognizes  the  demands  of  many 
conditions  and  prepares  himself  for  them  so  that  all  his 
acts  fit  in  together  as  a  functional  unit  to  bring  about 
the  ends  desired  and  demanded  under  the  larger  circum- 
stances. If,  for  instance,  a  pedestrian  must  get  to  some 
place  at  a  given  time  and  is  hard  pressed,  this  is  the 
dominating  factor  in  his  adjustments.  If  a  street  is  to 
be  crossed  on  the  way  and  he  sees  two  or  three  automo- 
biles in  close  succession  that  will  get  to  the  crossing  just 
in  time  to  stop  him  even  for  a  few  seconds,  he  speeds 
up  to  get  over  first  and  thus  to  save  the  needed  seconds ; 
if  the  sidewalk  is  crowded  sufficiently  to  impede  his  prog- 
ress, he  takes  another  course  even  though  this  may  slight- 
ly increase  his  distance.  Every  condition  affecting  his 
reaching  the  goal  is  thus  quickly  sized  up  and  met  in  a 
manner  to  yield  the  best  results  for  the  end  in  view. 

In  the  narrower  sense,  too,  the  normal,  efficient  man 
shows  superior  co-ordination  to  the  defective.  His  bal- 
ance, for  example,  is  more  finely  adjusted.  In  walking 
and  running  he  steps  in  such  a  way  as  properly  to  keep 
his  balance  and  to  interfere  with  his  momentum  as  little 
as  possible ;  too  long  steps  and  excessive  swinging  to  the 
sides  are  automatically  and  unconsciously  avoided,  for 
these  conditions  bring  about  loss  of  energy  in  the  re- 
sulting up-and-down  and  right-and-left  changes  of  mo- 
tion. His  steps  are  uniform  in  length  and  rate  and  are 
properly  gauged  for  the  greatest  efficiency,  and  each  step 
is  properly  counter-balanced  by  appropriate  arm  move- 
ments and  body  adjustments.  If  he  unexpectedly  steps 
on  something  slippery,  as  a  bit  of  banana  peel,  compen- 
satory arm,  leg  and  body  movements  so  adjust  the  body 
reflexly  and  almost  instantaneously  as  to  keep  the  equi- 
librium and  prevent  a  fall.  In  both  the  wider  and  the 
narrower  sense,  then,  co-ordination  implies  making  each 
act  fit  into  the  whole  system  of  acts  in  such  a  manner  as 
most  effectively  to  bring  about  certain  desired  results. 


TEAMPLAY  55 

Insanity,  and  mental  deficiency  on  the  whole,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  kind  of  inco-ordination.  This  characteriza- 
tion of  such  defectiveness  will  hold  with  reference  both 
to  the  larger  aspects  of  consistency  of  adjustment  to  the 
physical  and  social  world  about  one,  and,  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  term,  to  bodily  equilibrium  and  adjustments 
of  finer  movements  so  that  they  fit  into  the  larger  acts 
performed.  This  is  strikingly  brought  out  in  play.  The 
defects  in  both  kinds  of  co-ordination  referred  to  make 
the  feeble  minded  unfit  for  play  with  normal  children, 
and  even  among  normal  children  there  are  enormous  dif- 
ferences in  these  respects.  On  the  playground  a  child 
soon  finds  his  proper  place. 

Defectiveness  shows  itself  so  plainly  in  play  because 
play  usually  assumes  the  form  of  games,  the  operation  of 
one  group  against  another;  and  the  conditions  of  the 
games  are  such  as  to  make  obvious  any  superiority  in 
either  team  or  group.  That  is  to  say,  the  results  are 
easily  measured  as  the  game  progresses.  Such  plays,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  demand  a  high  degree  of  skill  in 
subordination  and  co-operation.  Accuracy  and  quick- 
ness of  movement  is  demanded  of  each  member.  A  fail- 
ure of  any  one  to  play  his  part  in  any  critical  situation 
may  lose  the  entire  game.  Who  has  not  seen  such  pa- 
thetic results  in  baseball,  basketball,  or  football  ?  In  play 
each  individual  soon  gets  a  strong  group  consciousness. 
He  becomes  aware  that  he  is  a  member  of  a  group  that 
must  act  as  a  unit.  Success  means  success  for  all,  and 
failure  means  that  all  must  go  down  together.  This  makes 
each  player  intensely  interested  in  the  success  of  every 
other  member.  Each  player  is  cheered  if  he  makes  an 
unusually  successful  play  and  is  "bawled  out,"  and  pos- 
sibly even  dropped  out  of  the  team,  if  he  makes  an  inex- 
cusable failure.  In  the  latter  case  the  man  is  sacrificed 
for  the  good  of  the  group.  Such  a  condition  and  such 
esprit  de  corps  compels  each  to  train  up  to  his  very  best. 
He  comes  to  take  a  pride  in  his  group  or  team  and  to 


56  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

feel  a  very  close  identification  of  himself  and  his  own  in- 
terests with  it.  Under  such  circumstances  inefficiency  is 
easily  discovered,  and  it  amounts  to  failure  in  co-ordina- 
tion, as  described. 

Just  as  co-ordination  in  individuals  makes  the  main 
difference  in  efficiency  even  against  odds  of  greatly  su- 
perior weight  and  strength,  so  teamplay  is  one  of  the 
chief  measures  of  efficiency  in  group  contests.  It  may 
indeed  outweigh  greatly  superior  individual  training  in 
other  respects.  For  an  organization  of  men,  with  pos- 
sibly machinery  of  various  sorts,  to  be  most  efficient  as  a 
unit,  each  individual's  acts  must  be  so  carried  out  that 
they  will  develop  the  least  friction  for  the  whole  team 
and  will  allow  of  the  most  perfect  co-operation  of  all  the 
individuals  and  sub-units.  Unified  effort  in  such  circum- 
stances is  what  counts.  Effort  involving  maladjustment 
between  units  may  be  very  harmful  and  dangerous  to  the 
success  of  the  group,  even  though  taken  in  itself  it  ap- 
pears to  be  intelligent  and  most  efficient. 

Unorganized  effort  of  many  intelligent  individuals  un- 
der unexpected  circumstances  makes  these  facts  plain.  A 
rush  of  such  individuals  in  a  frantic  effort  to  do  some- 
thing in  an  exciting  situation  illustrates  just  the  opposite 
of  teamplay.  In  attempts  to  save  themselves  from  a  fire, 
for  instance,  or  from  a  sinking  ship,  or  to  protect  them- 
selves against  an  invading  enemy,  the  most  surprising 
blunders  are  often  made.  Each  person  may  be  intelli- 
gent and  even  show  self-control  of  a  high  type,  but  under 
such  circumstances  each  one  reacts  directly  to  the  situ- 
ation as  he  himself  sees  it,  so  that  one  gets  in  the  way  of 
others  and  does  what  they  are  trying  to  do.  Besides  this, 
each  person  over-emphasizes  his  own  personal  interests 
in  the  situation.  The  result  is  fatal  inefficiency,  harmful 
to  all.  A  body  of  well  trained  and  well  directed  soldiers 
can  hold  its  own  against  vastly  superior  numbers  of 
strong  men  not  trained  to  act  together.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  today  when  warfare  is  carried  on  by  means 


TEAM  PLAY  (     57 

v^^*-* 

of  various  kinds  of  highly  specialized  machinery  and  in- 
struments of  war. 

Each  soldier  must  get  to  look  upon  himself  as  a  mere 
part  of  the  great  machine ;  hemustjiearn  to  use  his  own 
judgment  and  initiative  only  within  the  limits  allowed 
him;  for  the  entire  war  machine  in  all  its  workings  must 
be  under  the  direction  of  some  one  commander  who  has 
constant  and  as  nearly  direct  information  as  possible  of 
the  entire  changing  situation,  including  the  movements 
of  the  enemy.  Any  assumption  by  a  subordinate  officer 
or  soldier  of  the  freedom  of  acting  beyond  the  limits 
prescribed,  even  though  made  with  the  best  of  intention 
and  with  great  personal  patriotism  and  bravery,  might 
lead  to  maladjustments  and  to  the  failure  of  the  entire 
project,  as  well  as  to  self  destruction.  One  must  learn 
to  play  according  to  the  rules  of  the  game  just  as  is  true 
in  the  case  of  football.  Sometimes  what  one  is  ordered  to 
do  may  seem  unwise,  but  one  must  learn  to  respond  to 
commands  immediately  and  with  the  full  force  of  one's 
own  will.  Only  such  an  attitude  will  make  for  the  gen- 
eral efficiency  of  the  group,  and  enable  the  commander  to 
do  with  the  army  just  what  he  understands  from  his 
position  of  superior  knowledge  and  information  to  be 
necessary.  War  is  war,  and  when  it  is  forced  on  a  de- 
mocracy every  one's  safety  and  good  depends  on  the  effi- 
cient operation  of  the  entire  army.  Without  such  an  at- 
titude of  whole-hearted  surrender  on  the  part  of  the  sol- 
dier and  subordinate  officer,  the  commander  cannot  be 
held  responsible  for  results. 

The  present  war  has  shown  a  tendency,  it  seems,  to 
depart  from  the  reckless,  fool-hardy  individual  courage, 
or  mere  bravado,  toward  greater  surrender  of  individual 
responsibility  to  the  commander,  who  then  is  held  rigidly 
responsible  to  the  people  for  results.  Ferrari,  an  Italian 
writer  who  has  investigated  changes  in  courage  in  the 
present  war,  finds  that,  "It  is  only  the  novice  in  the 
trenches  that  shows  bravado.  In  the  first  months  of  the 


58  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

war,  when  an  officer  called  for  volunteers  for  a  specially 
dangerous  task,  there  were  always  twice  as  many  as  were 
wanted.  But  now  the  men  prefer  that  the  officer  desig- 
nate who  is  to  go ;  all  are  prepared  to  go  without  hesita- 
tion, but  only  within  the  limits  of  the  needful  as  deter- 
mined by  the  officer ;  and  the  soldier  prefers  that  the  re- 
sponsibility for  special  exposure  rest  with  the  officer 
rather  than  with  himself.  Courage  has  thus  taken  a  less 
impulsive,  more  rational  form."  (Quoted  from  a  review 
by  R.  S.  Woodworth,  Psychol.  Bull.,  1916,  13,  420-421.) 
This  change  is  toward  better  teamplay,  as  mere  bravado, 
to  be  brave,  could  in  no  way  add  to  the  strength  and  effi- 
ciency of  an  army.  To  do  readily  and  willingly  what 
one  is  directed  to  do,  employing  in  the  task  all  the  indi- 
viduality and  personal  judgment  at  one's  command,  is 
less  likely  to  interfere  with  the  efficiency  of  the  whole 
operation  of  the  war  machine  than  to  attempt  extra  feats 
of  bravery  just  to  show  one's  courage.  The  change  has 
evidently  been  forced  by  the  necessities  of  the  war  con- 
ditions, and  is  in  line  with  the  putting  of  all  one's  indi- 
viduality and  personal  judgment  at  the  command  of  the 
leader  who  sees  more  clearly  the  entire  situation  and  the 
individual's  relation  to  it. 

There  are  of  course  many  circumstances  still  in  which 
one  is  justified  in  exercising  initiative  and  judgment  and 
in  assuming  great  risks  on  one's  own  responsibility.  But 
the  general  principle  of  not  allowing  individual  initiative 
to  transcend  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  superior  officer 
is  important  for  the  best  teamplay,  and  it  is  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  inconsistent  with  the  principle  of  encouraging 
each  soldier  to  show  as  much  individuality  and  judgment 
as  possible  under  these  restrictions.  The  two  principles 
work  together  in  all  successfully  carried  out  group  con- 
tests, such  as  football. 

Teamplay  involves  specialization  of  function  just  as 
co-ordination  in  the  individual  requires  eyes,  nerves  or 
impulse  transmitters,  muscles,  circulatory  system,  lungs, 


TEAMPLAY  59 

etc.  First  of  all,  when  each  man  is  well  trained,  there 
must  be  means  of  communication  between  all  parts.  It 
would  be  wasteful  and  confusing  for  each  individual  to 
transmit  to  his  neighbor  instructions  coming  to  him  by 
such  channels.  The  better  plan,  of  course,  connects  lead- 
ers of  each  unit  with  those  of  larger  groups,  and  these 
again  with  men  of  still  greater  responsibility,  so  that  the 
commands  can  come  down  from  the  centers  of  informa- 
tion about  the  entire  situation.  On  the  same  plan  re- 
flexes and  the  similar  individual  acts  of  the  human  or- 
ganisms are  all  under  the  control  more  or  less  directly 
of  impulses  from  the  cerebrum,  which  depend  upon  what 
the  person  sees,  hears,  etc.  Teamplay,  then,  implies  sub- 
ordination of  some  individuals  and  groups  to  others,  and 
of  all  to  one  head.  In  democracies  this  head  represents 
the  authority  of  all  the  people  combined.  But  the  main 
thing  to  emphasize  here  is  that  each  unit  must  play  its 
part  so  well  as  to  work  perfectly  in  the  entire  war  ma- 
chine. This  condition  is  imperative  and,  as  will  be  seen, 
is  not  incompatible  in  defensive  war  with  the  ideals  of 
democracy. 

Each  leader  should  as  far  as  practicable  have  full 
freedom  of  operation,  of  opportunity  to  express  his  indi- 
viduality, within  the  sphere  of  his  own  command  and  of 
the  program  of  co-operative  action  given  him  by  his  su- 
periors, and  should  in  turn  allow  the  same  privilege  to  his 
subordinates.  Thus  freedom  is  compatible  with  subor- 
dination in  all  ranks  down  to  the  private,  each  officer  and 
man  being,  however,  held  strictly  responsible  for  doing 
his  part  well.  For  the  best  interrelations  of  all  units  or 
individuals,  opportunity  for  individual  drills  and  criticism 
should  exist  in  so  far  as  they  do  not  conflict  with  general 
drills  and  co-operative  action  or  interfere  with  the  pre- 
scribed program.  This  system. of  freedom  within  units 
encourages  individual  efficiency  and  initiative  and  affords 
the  very  best  opportunity  for  competition  among  co-or- 
dinate groups  both  in  training  and  in  actual  warfare. 


60  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

But  such  competition  is  profitable  only  inasmuch  as  it 
applies  to  co-ordinate  units  having  similar  functions.  It 
becomes  questionable  in  value  if  it  is  allowed  to  interfere 
with  the  necessary  specialization  in  function  of  certain 
units,  or,  in  actual  warfare,  with  any  of  the  outlined  op- 
erations of  the  entire  army.  This  freedom  within  the 
limits  necessary  for  the  entire  army  mobilization,  more- 
over, affords  means,  according  to  the  individual  genius 
and  initiative  of  leaders,  of  keeping  up  the  spirits  and  of 
stimulating  the  loyalty  of  the  soldiers.  These  matters 
will  receive  special  treatment  in  other  chapters. 

The  leader  of  each  group  must  know  thoroughly  his 
subordinates  and  some  elementary  principles  of  the  psy- 
chology of  incentives  to  action.  Even  when  men  are  well 
trained  and  efficient  their  response  depends  largely  on  the 
kind  of  stimulus  they  get  and  their  personal  attitude  to- 
ward the  situation.  Attention  is  selective;  it  emphasizes 
some  things  to  the  neglect  of  others.  To  the  cat  a  small 
moving  object — a  piece  of  yarn,  perhaps,  dragged  by 
some  one — is  far  more  stimulating  than  are  larger  mov- 
ing objects  in  the  room.  Nature  has  predisposed  it  to 
be  sensitive  to  such  stimuli ;  they  may  mean  food,  a 
mouse.  Even  in  the  case  of  man  the  selectiveness  of  at- 
tention leads  to  errors  of  view,  to  the  exaggeration  of  the 
importance  to  the  individual  of  matters  relating  immedi- 
ately to  himself ;  often  it  results  in  the  neglect  of  remote 
opportunities  and  of  activities  making  for  the  common 
good.  One's  effort,  enthusiasm,  and  patience  in  the  face 
of  obstacles  and  danger,  one's  tenacity  and  general  effi- 
ciency,— these  things  are  determined  largely  by  the  par- 
ticular manner  in  which  each  unit  or  individual  is  ap- 
pealed to  or  stimulated,  by  the  emphasis  each  aspect  of 
the  situation  receives  and  not  simply  by  the  mere  inten- 
sity or  clearness  of  the  commands. 

Right  here  comes  the  opportunity  for  the  leader  of 
each  group  to  show  his  best  teamplay.  In  severe  compe- 
tition under  critical  circumstances,  as  in  actual  war, 


TEAMPLAY  61 

where  every  muscle  is  to  be  exerted  to  the  utmost  to  ful- 
fill the  task  assigned  the  particular  group,  the  leader  or 
commander  has  it  in  his  power  to  a  considerable  extent 
to  decide  the  issue.  A  failure  on  his  part  may  throw 
extra  burdens  on  other  groups  and  cause  them  to  give 
way,  and  an  entire  battle  of  importance  may  thus  be  lost. 
Let  no  subordinate  individual  in  the  great  war  machine 
therefore  regard  his  own  part  too  meanly.  The  leader 
must  keep  mindful  of  the  fact  that  men  are  not  to  be 
regarded  as  so  many  physical  bodies  each  of  so  much 
weight  and  momentum;  men  are  not  things  or  machines 
in  the  sense  that  the  pulling  of  a  lever  or  the  mere  giving 
of  a  command  will  bring  out  their  best  effort.  They  are 
not  to  be  thrown  together  and  shuffled  about  as  so  many 
inanimate  objects.  In  each  human  being  energy  is  so 
stored,  however  perfect  has  been  his  training,  as  to  be 
released  and  used  under  stressing  and  critical  circum- 
stances according  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  arousal  of 
his  instincts  and  his  acquired  attitudes  and  habits.  Each 
individual  is  stimulated  not  only  by  what  he  sees  and  is 
told,  but  by  how  it  is  presented  to  him,  by  the  implications 
of  the  situation  as  he  gets  it,  by  the  attitude  of  others 
about  him,  by  the  amount  of  training  he  has  had  in  the 
performance  of  the  act  under  the  given  circumstances, 
and  by  what  the  act  promises  to  him  individually.  The 
most  efficient  response  is  the  one  that  can  be  made  en- 
thusiastically and  whole-heartedly,  with  one's  good  will. 
In  view  of  these  facts  it  not  infrequently  happens 
that  to  get  the  most  out  of  a  temporary  opportunity 
leaders  and  directors  of  groups  "play  unfair,"  slightly 
misrepresent,  make  promises  which  they  cannot  fulfill, 
and  so  on.  If  such  an  attitude  occasionally  seems  to 
bring  good  immediate  results  and  thus  to  justify  itself, 
this  is  only  to  short  vision ;  for  the  temporary  successes 
collapse  in  discontentment,  jealousies,  criticisms,  conflict 
and  final  failure.  The  largest  business  corporations  know 
this ;  they  have  learned  by  costly  experiences  that  the  ac- 


62  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

cumulation  of  stimuli  that  are  harmonious  among  them- 
selves in  the  large,  and  consistent  with  a  far-sighted  and 
straight- for  ward  policy,  inevitably  brings  the  best  results 
in  the  end.  Under  such  circumstances  friction  and  con- 
tradictory incentives  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  each 
succeeding  act  strengthens  the  next  by  an  accumulation 
of  stimulus  effect,  called  in  physiology  the  summation  of 
stimuli.  Pretentions  and  promises  which  cannot  be  ful- 
filled arouse  sporadic  effort,  which  under  the  conditions 
cannot  be  sustained.  Wavering  activity  results,  contra- 
dictory impulses  are  set  up,  and  waste  of  energy,  even  to 
collapse,  results. 

Teamplay  demands  not  only  enthusiasm  and  energy 
in  well  trained  individuals,  but  for  effective  results  it  re- 
quires much  practice  in  the  interplay  of  the  various  co- 
operating units.  Great  exactness  is  necessary  in  the  car- 
rying out  of  orders  so  that  no  hitch  will  arise.  Enough 
individuality  in  each  unit  is  demanded  to  assure  that  if 
any  part  of  the  general  plan  miscarries  as  a  result  of  un- 
foreseen conditions  or  surprises,  the  maladjustment  will 
not  be  insuperable  and  lead  to  confusion.  It  is  obvious, 
then,  that  teamplay  cannot  be  effective  among  groups  that 
work  mechanically  with  a  small  degree  of  individual  in- 
itiative and  intelligence.  The  individual  involved  must 
know  something  of  the  larger  aims  and  the  means  by 
which  they  are  to  be  obtained.  They  must  be  intelligent 
units  in  the  system,  ready  and  willing  to  understand  direc- 
tions and  to  adapt  readily  to  modifications  in  the  mode  of 
attack  or  defence  forced  by  the  changing  circumstances 
of  an  engagement,  and  able  to  act  on  independent  judg- 
ment if  by  chance  they  become  isolated  from  the  main 
army. 

In  a  real  engagement  a  few  individuals  of  poor  ability 
or  of  unfavorable  attitude  are  serious  obstacles  to  team- 
play.  They  must  be  eliminated.  Mental  tests  and  other 
means  of  selection  by  personal  acquaintance  and  contact 
are  great  aids  in  the  elimination  of  the  unfit.  Individuals 


TEAMPLAY  63 

thus  eliminated  may  prove  useful  in  other  capacities. 
Mental  tests  are  now  being  applied  on  a  large  scale. 

The  inspiring  influence  and  bravery  of  leaders  and  of 
comrades  are  invaluable  in  the  developing  of  proper  atti- 
tudes for  teamplay.  The  advantages  of  a  real  democrati- 
cally managed  army,  each  individual  fighting  consciously 
for  the  common  good,  and  content  with  the  conditions 
under  which  circumstances  understood  by  him  compel  him 
to  operate,  must  be  tremendous.  Too  much  stress  cannot 
be  laid  on  these  human  phases  of  warfare.  Armies  driven 
against  their  own  wills  by  autocrats,  or  hirelings  not  inter- 
ested vitally  in  the  outcome  of  a  conflict,  easily  go  to 
pieces  in  adversity.  They  lack  the  psychological  backing 
and  the  bracing  effects  of  circumstances  that  support 
democratic  peoples  fighting  for  liberty  against  aggression. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  attempt  estimates  of  the  im- 
portance of  these  factors  in  past  wars. 

Sound  education  of  the  men  in  our  armies  of  new  re- 
cruits brought  in  by  the  draft  is  desirable.  These  men 
frequently  come  into  the  training  camps  with  an  attitude 
of  passivity,  in  a  few  cases  with  actual  inner  opposition. 
Many  of  them  have  not  had  the  associations  and  the  edu- 
cation to  bring  them  to  a  full  appreciation  of  the  democ- 
racy of  their  call  to  the  colors.  A  large  part  of  the  prep- 
aration for  good  teamplay  in  the  army  will  consist  in 
bringing  about  the  proper  attitude  in  such  men;  not  by 
direct  instruction,  of  course,  so  much  as  by  various  indi- 
rect means,  such  as  the  effect  of  the  general  democratic 
atmosphere  of  the  training  camps  and  army  life.  Such 
atmosphere  works  gradually  by  indirect  suggestion  and 
reaches  back  by  means  of  personal  correspondence  to  the 
homes  from  which  the  recruits  come,  so  that  a  general 
feeling  of  solidarity  in  the  nation  develops  about  the  fight- 
ing men.  Thus  the  attitude  toward  individuality  and  de- 
mocracy gets  to  be  of  prime  importance  not  only  for  the 
army's  own  internal  operation  and  teamplay  but  also  as  a 


64  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

means  of  securing  the  backing  and  co-operation  of  the 
entire  nation. 

Each  soldier  must  be  thoroughly  and  genuinely  inter- 
ested in  his  company  and  be  anxious  to  guard  its  reputa- 
tion, as  a  man  works  for  the  welfare  of  his  own  family. 
In  games,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  group  interest  and 
success  comes  out  so  strongly  that  each  player  becomes 
vitally  interested  in  what  every  other  player  does,  in  how 
well  he  does  his  own  part  in  the  game.  Enthusiasm  de- 
velops when  a  successful  move  is  made  or  a  point  is 
gained  and  the  person  playing  the  lucky  role  is  cheered 
or  encouraged  by  various  other  means.  In  the  army  this 
same  idea  of  consolidating  the  group  should  be  empha- 
sized, the  idea  of  getting  each  member  personally  inter- 
ested in  the  other  members  and  so  bound  up  in  his  feel- 
ings and  interests  with  the  entire  group  that  its  welfare 
is  vitally  connected  with  his  own  welfare.  Under  such 
conditions  each  soldier  takes  a  pride  in  keeping  up  his 
part  of  the  game  well ;  he  feels  keenly  the  responsibil- 
ity of  failures  and  the  encouragement  of  individual 
successes.  It  is  only  when  one's  company  is  regarded 
as  superior  by  one's  self  and  by  others  that  one  is 
stimulated  to  the  utmost  effort  to  keep  up  its  good 
reputation.  Many  a  soldier  who  cannot  be  stimulated 
by  the  more  remote  appeals  of  patriotism  to  country 
or  of  loyalty  to  the  cause  in  which  he  is  fighting,  re- 
sponds readily  to  the  more  local  and  immediate  ap- 
peals of  the  group;  his  attitude  of  love  of  the  com- 
pany and  the  identification  of  his  own  interests  with 
its  interests  make  him  easily  stimulated  to  his  best 
effort  by  his  immediate  social  environment.  The  de- 
sire to  stand  well  in  the  estimation  of  his  fellows  about 
him,  in  his  own  social  world,  makes  an  excellent  basis 
for  control  by  group  sentiments  of  honor  and  the  esprit 
de  corps,  rather  than  by  compulsion. 

Definite  rules  for  teamplay  cannot  be  prescribed.  We 
have  stated  some  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  its  sue- 


TEAMPLAY  65 

cessful  and  persistent  operation.  Individuals  who  show 
ability  in  organization  and  in  the  successful  application 
of  principles  favoring  teamplay  will  find  themselves  in 
demand,  just  as  good  coaches  are  sought  for  football 
and  located  by  their  results  when  competition  is  keen. 
We  add,  however,  some  suggestions  from  army  men  of 
experience. 

in 

The  safety  of  each  soldier  and  of  the  country  rests 
upon  the  co-operation  of  all.  In  the  great  offensives  of 
the  west  European  front  every  detail  is  planned  so  that 
the  gigantic  war  machine  with  its  numerous  specialized 
agencies  can  work  at  its  greatest  efficiency.  "The  Ameri- 
can soldier/'  says  Major  McCoy,  "must  be  trained  by 
appealing  to  his  common  sense,  with  an  earnest  effort  to 
encourage  individual  intelligence  and  excellence.  The 
common  knowledge  of  the  great  efforts  of  the  contending 
powers  on  the  western  front  has  borne  in  on  every  one 
of  us  the  complicated  and  desperate  nature  of  every  at- 
tack. We  all  know  that  superiority  of  fire  must  be  pre- 
pared and  maintained.  Where  the  artillery  leaves  off, 
the  infantry  and  machine-gun  fire  and  throwing  of  gren- 
ades and  bombing  must  keep  it  up.  The  communications 
must  be  maintained  midst  terrible  confusion  and  soul- 
racking  noise.  No  commands  can  be  heard.  The  at- 
tacking lines  must  be  handled  by  signals  which  presup- 
poses absolute  training  and  teamwork — the  thorough  co- 
operation between  all  arms.  For  the  infantry  to  gain 
and  keep  the  superiority  of  fire,  every  individual  soldier 
must  handle  his  arm  instinctively  and  rapidly  and  be  con- 
trolled and  directed  by  officers  and  noncoms.  The  team- 
work must  function  in  the  work,  advancing  and  crawling 
by  the  unseen  touch  of  training  and  discipline.  The 
possibility  must  be  attained  of  rushing  forth  from  a  line 
of  shelter  at  a  short  distance  from  the  enemy  at  any  de- 
cisive phase  of  the  combat.  The  sacrifice  being  resolved 
upon,  it  must  be  pushed  through  to  a  finish  and  the  enemy 


66  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

drowned  under  successive  waves.  It  is  our  duty  as  offi- 
cers to  train  men,  both  physically  and  morally,  so  that 
the  attacks  will  be  pushed  through."  (Op.  cit.  pp.  215 
and  216). 

Successive  waves  of  assault  are  sent  forward  each  to 
bolster  up  and  protect  the  preceding  fighters  and  to  take 
and  hold  new  sections  of  conquered  ground.  A  more 
detailed  account  of  one  of  these  attacks  will  help  the 
reader  get  a  picture  of  the  real  struggle  and  the  need  of 
teamplay.  The  quotation  is  from  a  description  by  a 
foreign  officer.  We  begin  with  the  second  line  of  attack. 

"With  the  enemy  all  in  disorder  [after  the  wrecking 
of  their  trench  systems  by  the  artillery  fire  and  after  the 
first  line  has  hit  its  blow],  the  batteries  flee  at  a  gallop 
before  the  tide  which  has  carried  away  all  the  obstacles 
prepared  long  ago  and  judged  impregnable;  all  confi- 
dence disappears;  the  adversary,  feeling  the  resistance 
giving  way  around  him  no  longer  dares  to  hold  out  des- 
perately, from  now  on  the  least  thing  induces  him  to  turn 
tail.  However,  on  some  points  reserves  have  come  up, 
have  manned  their  positions  of  the  second  line  and  have 
attempted  some  timid  counter-offensive.  Machine  guns, 
rapidly  brought  up,  are  installed  and  fire  with  all  haste  to 
prevent  access  to  the  open  zones  of  the  defender  and  to 
gain  time.  The  tottering  resistance  tries  to  hold  on ;  now, 
one  more  great  brutal  push  along  the  whole  point  like  the 
attack  of  the  first  line,  and  then  will  come  the  desperate 
rout. 

"It  is  then  that  the  second  line  appears ;  starting  out 
in  its  turn  from  the  parallel,  it  advances  by  immense  and 
successive  waves  of  thin  lines,  calm  and  unshakable 
among  the  rafles  of  shells  and  spent  bullets. 

"Already  numerous  detachments  of  machine  guns  and 
light  cannon  have  preceded  it.  Creeping  through,  fol- 
lowing up  the  first  line,  they  have  been  able  to  unravel 
the  situation  and  take  account  of  the  points  where  the  re- 
sistance seems  to  be  desperate  and  needs  to  be  imme- 


TEAMPLAY  67 

diately  swept.  The  light  cannon  orient  themselves  di- 
rectly on  the  rattling  of  the  machine  guns,  which  they 
endeavor  to  overwhelm  with  a  shower  of  their  small 
shells. 

"The  accompanying  batteries  have  started  as  soon  as 
the  first  trenches  are  taken;  they  are  soon  oriented  by 
the  signals  of  the  special  agents  of  liaison — artillery  men 
who  follow  the  infantry.  The  remainder  of  the  artillery 
cuts  off  the  approaches  by  a  barrier  of  asphyxiating  shells 
and  carries  its  fire  on  to  the  second  line  marked  out 
according  to  the  directing  plan. 

"Thus  the  second  line  arrives  close  up  to  the  advanced 
elements  of  the  first  line  under  cover  of  sufficient  fire. 
The  second  line  pushes  straight  to  the  front  on  the  ob- 
jectives fixed  long  before  and  which  should  claim  its 
whole  attention. 

"Certain  of  the  units  have  a  mission  to  block  off  the 
centers  of  resistance  by  finishing  up  the  conquest  of  their 
exterior  borders,  while  the  great  majority  is  absorbed  in 
the  intervals,  instead  of  being  halted  and  played  out, 
playing  the  game  of  the  adversary  in  his  inextricable 
points  of  support."  (From  Major  McCoy,  op.  cit.  222f.) 

The  intricacy  of  the  situation  is  such  that  much  of  the 
final  and  special  training  must  of  necessity  be  attained  in 
close  connection  with  actual  warfare.  It  is  of  prime  im- 
portance that  the  soldier  gets  a  picture  of  the  situation 
and  sees  the  necessity  of  playing  his  own  part  well  so 
that  his  own  action  and  that  of  his  unit  may  protect  and 
support  all  those  that  depend  upon  it.  Major  General 
Geo.  Bell,  Jr.,  of  the  National  Army,  says  in  the  letter 
to  which  we  have  already  referred :  "Each  man  must  do 
his  part  and  help  his  fellow  man  so  as  to  bring  about 
that  perfect  teamplay  which  only  can  produce  an  effi- 
cient military  organization.  Unless  each  part  of  the 
machine  functions  properly  no  machinery  can  do  effective 
work.  It  should  be  impressed  on  every  man  that  the  role 
of  every  one  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  success 


68  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

of  the  whole  and  that  it  is  only  by  the  willing  and  instan- 
taneous contribution  of  each  that  the  army  can  be  made 
an  effective  weapon  and  it  is  only  when  the  army  is  an 
effective  weapon  that  success  can  be  achieved  and  na- 
tional existence  maintained." 

"In  the  artillery,"  says  Brigadier  General  S.  M.  Foote, 
"I  think  we  have  perhaps  a  better  opportunity  than  in 
some  of  the  other  branches  to  teach  teamplay  because  we 
work  always  in  'teams.'  The  detachment  of  cannoneers, 
for  instance,  that  work  a  gun,  must  work  together  like 
clock-work,  no  two  men  doing  precisely  the  same  thing. 
During  ordinary  drills  it  soon  becomes  impressed  upon 
each  man  that  a  mistake  made  by  him  affects  the  work  of 
the  entire  detachment.  One  advantage  derived  from  the 
accurate,  close-order  drills  on  the  parade  ground  for  in- 
fantry, in  fact  I  may  say  for  all  branches  of  the  service, 
is  that  where  all  are  required  to  do  the  same  thing  at  the 
same  time  the  appearance  is  such  that  a  single  mistake 
can  be  readily  detected.  While  these  drills  may  not  in 
themselves  be  so  very  valuable  for  war  purposes,  they  are 
valuable  incidentally  in  teaching  the  paramount  element 
of  teamwork." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  way  to  learn  teamplay 
is  to  do  actual  work  in  a  team,  and  we  are  pleased  to 
have  this  so  well  illustrated  in  General  Foote's  quotation. 

Mere  formal  drills  in  which  all  do  the  same  thing  at 
the  same  time  without  evident  co-operation  for  the  attain- 
ment of  some  practical  end  do  not  in  themselves  develop 
teamplay  or  give  a  good  idea  of  it;  besides  giving  train- 
ing in  the  performance  of  certain  acts,  manipulation  of 
instruments  etc.,  that  may  be  necessary  in  teamplay,  they 
only  enable  the  trainer  to  see  readily,  as  was  pointed  out 
in  the  quotation,  the  failure  of  any  one  to  learn  his  move- 
ments. Such  failure  does  not,  however,  show  the  seri- 
ousness of  failure  to  do  one's  part  in  the  teamwork  of  an 
army  in  real  action.  We  take  it  that  General  Foote's  last 
sentence  does  not  necessarily  commit  him  to  a  view  differ- 


TEAMPLAY  69 

ent  from  this.  Every  means  should  be  employed  by  the 
trainer  to  let  the  recruit  take  actual  part  in  teamwork  in 
various  kinds  of  group  competition.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  soldier's  training  period  he  gets  the  opportunity  of 
coming  into  contact  with  teamplay  in  actual  warfare. 
Herein  lies  the  prime  importance  of  having  the  final 
training  in  Europe  under  the  direction  of  officers  in  im- 
mediate contact  with  the  work  of  the  army  in  its  ever 
changing  methods.  Gradually  the  soldier  can  become 
initiated  into  orienting  himself  among  the  dangers  of  mod- 
ern wrarfare  with  its  smokeless  powder,  its  sniping,  its 
raids,  its  poisonous  gases,  etc. 

In  the  training  camps  teamplay  is  generally  regarded 
as  of  prime  importance.  The  soldier  is  taught  that*  his 
own  work,  and  that  of  all  the  other  members  of  the  team, 
may  be  very  good  from  an  individual  standpoint  and  yet 
absolutely  futile  if  it  is  not  made  to  fit  into  the  general 
purposes  of  the  group  and  its  successful  operation  from 
the  standpoint  of  a  unit  body.  Athletic  performances 
seem  to  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  actual  training  in 
teamplay.  Contests  of  various  sorts  not  only  develop  con- 
siderable skill  in  co-operative  activities,  as  we  have  already 
pointed  out,  but  they  also  create  a  great  deal  of  interest 
in  the  group  itself  and  its  success,  an  interest  that  for  the 
soldier  becomes  closely  identified  with  self-interest.  Com- 
petition of  various  kinds  requiring  skill  in  the  handling 
of  arms, — accurate  shooting,  effective  bayoneting,  gren- 
ade throwing,  etc. — and  mock  wars  with  charges,  de- 
fenses, etc.,  involving  an  imaginary  enemy,  afford  means 
of  developing  teamplay,  but  these  means  are  after  all 
only  the  first  stages  in  the  preparation  for  actual  war  con- 
ditions, the  complexities  of  which  have  become  so  great 
and  the  special  lines  of  work  so  various  that  there  is  al- 
most no  end  to  the  amount  of  teamplay  possible.  These 
extreme  complexities  must  never  be  lost  sight  of;  they 
afford  unlimited  room  for  any  especially  well-trained  com- 


70  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

pany  or  larger  group  to  distinguish  itself  and  they  serve 
as  encouragement  to  extreme  Industry  in  training. 

Teamplay  is  greatly  improved  by  personal  attention  to 
individuals  and  to  maladjustment  of  various  kinds.  For 
such  attention  some  men  have  special  genius.  While 
general  rules  are  not  of  much  service  in  this  connection, 
an  illustration  of  the  resourcefulness  of  a  young  officer 
may /serve  to  indicate  the  principle  in  mind.  Among 
other  means  he  says  that  he  seeks  to  develop  teamplay 
"by  studying  the  habits  and  traits  of  my  officers,  by  re- 
moving causes  of  friction  between  them,  by  instruction 
along  uniform  lines,  and  by  assigning  as  much  as  possi- 
ble congenial  work  to  each.  For  example,  one  of  my 
officers  is  a  university  man  who  has  been  a  teacher,  and 
who  is  a  student  of  psychology  and  English  literature.  I 
find  him  an  ideal  instructor  for  the  foreigners  in  the 
company  who  are  being  taught  English.  Another  offi- 
cer, who  has  a  taste  for  medical  matters,  does  very  well 
as  an  instructor  in  hygiene  and  first  aid.  One  of  my  non- 
commissioned officers  is  an  ex-prize-fighter,  and  he  is  in- 
valuable as  a  boxing  teacher.  Teamwork  is  most  import- 
ant ;  an  organization  cannot  be  effective  without  it." 

Finally,  it  is  doubtless  well  never  to  lose  sight  of  the 
motivating  factors  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. 
Teamplay  is  enlivened,  and  the  soldier  becomes  alert  and 
vigorous  in  the  performance  of  his  own  part,  only  when 
self-good  is  never  lost  sight  of  and  when  natural  innate 
tendencies  are  more  or  less  directly  stimulated.  For  the 
soldier  the  war  is  not  merely  a  struggle  for  what  he  re- 
gards as  just  and  right;  it  is  a  big  game  in  which  he  has 
become  a  participant,  a  game  that  affords  unusual  oppor- 
tunities for  him  to  distinguish  himself  if  he  thoroughly 
learns  and  practices  its  methods,  but  which  may  quickly 
eliminate  hirii  and  bring  reverses  to  his  cause  if  he  is 
careless  about  its  technique. 


CHAPTER  V 

LEADERSHIP 
i 

We  have  considered  some  of  the  instinctive  bases  of 
behavior,  and  their  operation  in  competition,  play,  and 
teamplay,  and  also  the  necessity  of  emphasizing  these  fac- 
tors to  secure  the  greatest  development  and  efficiency  in 
the  army.  Now  we  come  to  the  team  captain  who  must 
embody  the  foregoing  principles  in  the  work  of  training 
and  drilling  his  men. 

The  team  captain  or  leader  is  the  man  who  is  respon- 
sible for  the  building  up  of  an  efficient  company,  for 
to  kindle  the  fires  of  loyalty,  teamplay  and  enthusiasm 
within  a  company  the  spark  must  come  from  the  top. 
The  government  has  gowned  the  officer  with  a  mantle  of 
authority,  which  if  properly  exercised  will  result  in  the 
forming  and  molding  of  real  soldiers  from  the  men 
placed  in  his  command.  Nowhere  in  civil  life  does  one 
find  any  power  analogous  to  that  of  the  officer  over  his 
men.  How  important  is  it  therefore  that  that  power 
and  influence  be  the  best  and  be  applied  in  the  most  effi- 
cient manner.  The  very  thoughts  of  an  officer  will  color 
those  of  his  men,  his  actions  will  be  guide  posts  for 
theirs.  He  is  to  his  company  what  a  father  is  to  his  fam- 
ily; he  must  teach  them,  discipline  them,  console  them, 
sympathize  with  them,  share  their  hardships  and  judge 
their  actions. 

It  is  reported  that  a  German  military  authority  has 
made  the  charge  that  the  United  States  is  making  civil- 
ians into  officers  by  merely  pinning  epaulets  on  their 
shoulders.  This  of  course  is  not  true,  for  the  forty-five 
thousand  citizens  who  received  commissions  in  1917,  and 
the  thousands  since  then,  have  been  put  through  a  severe 

71 


72  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

testing  process,  and  have  received  some  very  intensive 
training.  It  is  true  that  they  were  not  chosen  solely  as  a 
result  of  their  efforts  and  attainments  at  the  various  train- 
ing camps,  but  in  part  on  the  potential  possibilities  in  each 
man,  and  the  controlling  factor  in  choosing  the  men  for 
officers  was  their  ability  to  lead  men. 

The  success  of  an  army  more  than  of  any  other  or- 
ganization is  built  upon  the  foundation  of  leadership. 
Each  squad,  each  platoon,  each  company,  each  regiment 
and  each  division  has  its  leader.  Moreover  the  company 
becomes  what  the  officer  is ;  that  is,  his  personality  is  re- 
flected in  the  company;  and  the  company  will  develop 
the  same  degree  of  enthusiasm,  loyalty  and  fighting  spirit 
that  is  felt  and  exhibited  by  the  leader.  There  is  no  bet- 
ter example  of  the  power  and  influence  that  a  leader 
exercises  over  his  men  than  the  historical  incident  of 
"Sheridan's  Ride."  One  can  just  imagine  the  force  and 
influence  that  Sheridan  must  have  had  with  his  men. 
There  was  the  army  in  disorder  on  the  point  of  flight, 
spirit  broken,  morale  missing,  the  anxious  officers  trying 
to  stay  the  retreat  and  longing  for  the  commander  who 
had  always  led  to  victory.  Then  followed  Sheridan's 
ride  from  Winchester,  twenty  miles  away,  and  with  his 
presence  came  new  hope,  spirit  and  enthusiasm  that  re- 
juvenated the  men  and  resulted  in  turning  defeat  into  vic- 
tory. Napoleon,  Cromwell,  and  Andrew  Jackson  were 
leaders  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word  and  had  the  same 
sort  of  powerful  influence  over  their  men.  They  always 
impressed  people  with  a  conviction  of  confidence  and 
expectation  of  success  that  carried  all  before  them. 

In  time  of  peace  we  have  seen  the  importance  of 
leadership  on  every  hand.  In  commerce,  business,  politics 
and  athletics  one  sees  thousands  of  examples  where  in- 
dividuals have  accomplished  extraordinary  deeds  by 
means  of  their  leadership.  Men  like  E.  H.  Harriman, 
James  J.  Hill,  Wannemaker,  Carnegie  and  Schwab  have 
built  up  great  business  enterprises  by  influencing  the 


LEADERSHIP  73 

thoughts  and  securing  the  allegiance  of  thousands  of  men, 
very  much  as  the  action  of  great  magnets  draw  iron  shav- 
ings to  them.  In  politics  we  know  that  each  community 
has  its  leader,  the  man  who  welds  together  the  individual 
thoughts  of  the  people  and  brings  about  organized  effort. 
In  athletics  also  we  find  that  success  comes  most  often 
to  that  team  which  has  the  most  skillful,  aggressive  and 
enthusiastic  leader.  On  the  football  field  especially, 
which  is  as  close  as  you  get  in  athletic  contests  to  war- 
fare, I  have  seen  the  captain  of  a  team  literally  gather 
together  the  scattered  efforts  and  energies  of  his  team- 
mates and  combine  them  into  one  forceful  unit,  thereby 
winning  the  game.  Ted  Coy's  feat  at  Yale  during  the 
Yale-Princeton  game,  several  years  ago,  will  stand  out  for 
some  time  as  one  of  the  best  examples  of  this  in  athletics. 
The  game  had  been  going  against  Yale,  and  though  Coy 
was  captain  of  the  team  the  coaches  had  been  running 
the  game  and  had  withheld  the  leadership  of  the  team 
from  Coy.  During  intermission  between  halves,  the  great 
half-back  pleaded  with  the  coaches  for  the  reins  of  lead- 
ership, and  they  finally  yielded  to  his  demands.  Those 
who  saw  the  game  agree  that  he  put  new  life  and  vigor 
into  the  men  and,  to  the  great  surprise  of  everyone,  led 
his  team  to  victory. 

In  the  present  war  the  importance  of  leadership  has 
been  illustrated  in  every  great  battle.  A  short  time  ago  I 
had  a  talk  with  Lieutenant  Paul  Perigord,  of  the  French 
army,  who  has  been  sent  over  here  by  his  government  to 
help  us  prepare  for  the  conflict.  I  asked  him  about  the 
French  officers ;  he  said : 

"The  most  successful  French  officers  are  those  who 
in  the  greatest  degree  inspire  confidence  in  their  leader- 
ship, who  are  kindest  to  their  men  and  who  are  the  real 
friends  of  their  men.  It  has  been  leadership  such  as  that 
that  has  led  our  men  to  victory." 

British  army  men  visiting  in  this  country  tell  me  that 
by  setting  an  example  for  their  men  in  the  way  of  acts  of 


74  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

bravery  and  daring,  the  British  officer  has  so  won  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  his  men  that  his  leadership  in 
battle  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors  for  success. 

ii 

Leadership  is  one  of  the  things  resulting  from  a  happy 
combination  of  various  traits  that  is  hard  adequately  to 
describe  and  analyze.  It  unquestionably  depends  largely 
on  innate  qualities.  Some  men  seem  to  be  natural  lead- 
ers while  others  with  much  training  are  not  successful 
leaders  and  managers.  But  while  this  is  true,  we  are  not 
to  conclude  that  any  given  individual  cannot  be  im- 
proved in  leadership  by  proper  knowledge  and  training. 
He  unquestionably  can  be  improved  considerably  in  some 
of  the  qualities  making  for  leadership,  if  not  in  all  of 
them. 

The  consideration  of  leadership  raises  the  question  of 
personality.  What  is  a  person?  It  is  not  merely  the 
physical  organism  we  see  before  us  in  the  case  of  any 
man.  A  friend  or  any  acquaintance  exerts  an  influence 
upon  us  that  is  different  from  that  of  a  stranger.  The 
stranger  has  many  qualities  not  known  to  us ;  in  a  sense 
he  "keeps  us  guessing."  We  do  not  know  how  he  will 
react  to  this  and  to  that  idea  or  suggestion,  or  how  much 
reliance  we  can  place  in  what  he  says.  He  is  mostly  an 
undetermined  quantity.  The  acts  of  a  person  well  known 
to  us,  on  the  other  hand,  can  be  anticipated ;  his  likes  and 
dislikes,  his  ideals,  his  way  of  reacting  to  most  things  we 
may  do  are  known.  We  know  him  as  an  individual  who 
will  do  certain  things  under  given  conditions.  This  antic- 
ipation or  knowledge — not  simply  his  physical  being, 
with  complexion,  age,  size,  and  so  on — is  his  personality 
to  us.  It  may  get  to  be  almost  a  mere  habit  in  us  to  ex- 
pect certain  responses,  a  matter  that  we  really  do  not 
think  of  and  of  which  we  are  hardly  conscious  ourselves. 
It  is  this  anticipation  of  their  reaction  that  stimulates  dis- 
like for  and  avoidance  of  some  individuals  and  that 
makes  us  expand  with  optimism  and  courage  in  the  pres- 


LEADERSHIP  75 

ence  of  others.  Some  persons,  because  of  what  they  are 
known  to  stand  for,  stimulate  us  to  eagerness  for  co-op- 
eration and  self-sacrifice;  in  their  presence  and  under 
their  influence  there  is  almost  no  end  to  the  effort  we 
are  willing  to  give  and  to  the  hardships  we  will  endure. 
It  is  true  that  the  mantle  of  authority  bestowed  by  the 
government  has  something  of  this  effect  upon  us,  but  it 
is  well  known  that  an  official  is  sometimes  hated  and 
avoided.  He  is  obeyed  in  such  cases  only  because  of  our 
respect  for  the  government,  or  for  the  will  of  the  people 
which  he  represents,  but  is  disliked  in  spite  of  his  au- 
thority. Authority  coupled  with  real  leadership  adds  to 
one's  influence  over  others,  it  is  true,  but  in  such  com- 
bination the  authority  is  always  in  the  background.  The 
real  leader  does  not  ostentatiously  display  his  authority. 
Leadership  is  not  something  that  can  be  bestowed  upon 
an  individual  when  he  is  made  an  officer ;  it  is  something 
far  more  subtle  and  more  difficult  to  understand  than  this. 
But  we  all  recognize  the  real  leader  when  we  meet  him, 
and  we  yield  even  more  thoroughly  and  naturally  than 
to  mere  authority,  for  which  many  people  have  a  secret 
dislike.  The  poor  leader,  the  little-souled,  selfish  official, 
unwittingly  arouses  antagonism  and  discord.  The 
natural  leader  avoids  any  show  of  compulsion,  yet  in  his 
presence  opposition  fades  as  the  mist  before  the  sun. 

Leadership,  like  reputation,  is  something  that  gradu- 
ally builds  up  about  one,  some  intangible  quality  that  is 
worth  an  immense  amount  to  a  man;  it  makes  one 
sought  by  all  sorts  of  industrial,  social,  and  political  or- 
ganizations. But  it  is  not  merely  an  attitude  aroused  in 
others,  a  habit  of  respect  that  is  built  up,  but  is  founded 
on  some  real  personal  qualities  that  bespeak  self-confi- 
dence and  expectance  of  recognition.  Even  among  total 
strangers  the  natural  leader  will  soon  stand  out  with  un- 
usual personal  influence.  There  are  manners  about  his 
behavior  that  compel  recognition  and  respect.  We  can- 
not help  observing  and  taking  note  of  the  leader.  It  is 


76  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

immensely  worth  while  for  the  young  army  officer,  both 
commissioned  and  non-commissioned,  to  think  somewhat 
of  the  characteristics  of  these  manners.  Leadership  may 
express  itself  in  different  lines,  in  science  or  thought,  in 
art  or  feeling,  or  in  executive  ability;  one  man  cannot 
stand  out  above  the  common  man  and  inspire  confidence 
in  all  lines,  though  leadership  in  any  one  of  the  numer- 
ous human  interests  usually  has  much  in  common  with 
leadership  along  other  lines.  We  are  concerned  here 
chiefly  with  leadership  as  it  shows  itself  in  the  successful 
handling  of  men. 

First  of  all,  as  Professor  Cooley  says  in  his  admirable 
chapter  on  "Leadership  and  Personal  Ascendency,"  the 
leader  "must,  in  one  way  or  another,  be  a  great  deal  of 
a  man,  or  at  least  appear  to  be.  He  must  stand  for  some- 
thing to  which  men  incline,  and  so  take  his  place  by 
right  as  a  focus  of  their  thought."  (Human  Nature  and 
the  Social  Order,  p.  293.) 

"  The  military  leader  is  not  merely  well  trained  and 
impressive  in  his  physical  appearance.  He  must  of 
course  have  these  qualities ;  he  must  have  an  erect,  posi- 
tive bearing  and  an  ease  and  decisiveness  in  his  acts,  in- 
corporating the  prestige  of  the  military  formalities  and 
manners ;  he  must  be  a  real  soldier.  These  physical  mani- 
festations of  the  soldier  he  must  have  ground  into  him- 
self until  they  are  second  nature.  But  this  is  not  all. 
He  must  know  the  whole  military  game,  the  more  of 
it  the  better.  Continued  leadership  is  impossible  with- 
out thorough  knowledge  of  the  matters  in  which  the 

^leader  directs,  and  without  efficiency  in  their  execution. 
While  it  is  true  that  the  leader  and  the  genius  are 
probably  oftener  born  than  made,  this  does  not  mean 
that  greatness  comes  without  work.  Quite  the  con- 
trary is  true;  the  leader  in  any  line,  besides  having 
other  good  inborn  qualities,  usually  has  more  energy 
and  continuity  for  real  work  and  more  ability  to  stick 
to  the  problem  at  hand  in  the  face  of  opposing  im- 


LEADERSHIP  77 

pulses  than  the  so-called  average  man.  The  mili- 
tary man  is  the  leader  who  acts,  who  acts  with  posi- 
tiveness  and  self-confidence  grounded  on  knowledge 
and  discipline.  For  action  that  is  to  count  and  not  ulti- 
mately to  contradict  and  thus  to  annul  itself  there 
must,  of  course,  be  thorough  knowledge  of  the  condi- 
tions acted  upon. 

But  this  knowledge  must  be  of  concrete  practical 
matters.  The  leader  of  men  in  practical  affairs  is 
not  the  man  to  allow  himself  to  be  blocked  by  oppos- 
ing theories.  He  boldly  strikes  out,  when  he  gets  the 
situation  in  mind,  and  does  things.  His  mind  is  made 
up  usually  before  he  takes  command  of  a  situation. 
In  his  appearance  before  others,  misgivings  and  un- 
certainties as  to  this  or  that  policy  are  not  in  evidence ; 
such  behavior  would  invite  contradiction  and  lack  of 
confidence.  But  instead  there  is  a  fine  sense  of  reach- 
ing the  point  of  "diminishing  returns"  on  controverted 
matters,  and  differences  of  opinion  of  small  practical 
import  for  the  problem  in  hand  are  disregarded  be- 
cause they  are  easily  outweighed  by  personal  attitude 
and  decision.  There  are  usually  several  good  ways  of 
doing  anything  complex ;  once  one  way  has  been 
chosen  the  others  may  well  be  dismissed  from  the 
mind  and  this  one  carried  through  with  unwavering 
confidence.  This  is  the  point  of  view  that  finds  ex- 
pression in  the  manners  of  the  leader.  "Into  the 
vagueness  and  confusion  that  most  of  us  feel  in  the 
face  of  a  strange  situation,  such  a  man  injects  a  clear- 
cut  idea.  There  is  a  definiteness  about  him  which 
makes  us  feel  that  he  will  not  leave  us  drifting,  but 
will  set  a  course,  will  substitute  action  for  doubt,  and 
give  our  energies  an  outlet.  Again,  his  aggressive 
confidence  is  transmitted  by  suggestion,  and  acts  di- 
rectly upon  our  minds  as  a  sanction  of  his  leadership. 
And  if  he  adds  to  this  the  tact  to  awaken  no  opposi- 
tion, to  make  us  feel  that  he  is  of  our  sort,  that  his  sug- 


78  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

gestions  are  quite  in  our  line,  in  a  word  that  we  are 
safe  in  his  hands ;  he  can  hardly  be  resisted."  (Cooley, 
ibid.,  297.) 

Anything  that  reflects  insincerity  or  lack  of  confi- 
dence in  his  own  ability  to  master  the  situation  is  fatal 
to  the  influence  of  the  leader.  The  lack  of  genuine- 
ness is  hard  to  conceal.  It  is  only  the  man  of  real 
qualities,  with  nothing  to  cover  up,  that  can  be  per- 
fectly frank  and  straight-forward  in  his  relations  with 
his  men.  It  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  in- 
fluence we  exert  over  others  is  a  result  of  the  many 
things  that  we  say  and  do,  and  that  are  reported  of 
us  by  others,  and  not  simply  of  our  physical  presence 
and  the  tone  of  voice  at  the  time  of  giving  directions. 
Personality,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  accumulated  ef- 
fect upon  one's  self  and  others  of  what  one  has  done  in 
the  past;  and  what  one  may  do  in  the  future,  or  on 
any  occasion,  is  suggested  to  others  more  by  this  than 
by  any  present  demonstrations  one  may  make.  Who 
has  not  wondered  at  the  courage  of  some  small  boy 
standing  unmoved  by  the  threats  of  his  father  or 
mother  and  the  display  of  wrathful  power,  only  to  see 
later  that  the  boy  had  actually  nothing  to  fear?  He 
was  stimulated  not  simply  by  the  present  threats  and 
gestures  but  by  their  lack  of  enforcement  in  the  past. 
Gradually  and  almost  unconsciously  each  of  us  is  build- 
ing up  in  the  attitudes  of  others  about  him  a  sensi- 
tiveness or  lack  of  sensitiveness  to  what  he  says  and 
does,  depending  on  the  consistency  with  which  he  acts, 
and  on  the  degree  of  certainty  with  which  what  he 
says  will  affect  others.  This  is  the  point  of  funda- 
mental import  in  discipline.  All  the  little  events  in  our 
lives  are  gradually  but  surely  accumulated  into  a  dis- 
position or  a  character  and  a  social  status.  Thus  grad- 
ually and  in  the  main  unwittingly  each  of  us  limits  or 
expands  his  own  personal  influence.  It  is  our  whole 
past  that  speaks  when  we  address  others  or  give  them 


LEADERSHIP  79 

directions  and  this  is  why  leadership  requires,  at  any 
rate  in  the  essential  matters  for  the-  case  in  hand,  real 
manhood,  energy,  and  persistence. 

We  do  not  continue  to  hold  in  the  highest  esteem  • 
the  man  whom  we  perfectly  comprehend,  whose  be- 
havior in  any  given  situation  we  have  learned  fully  to 
anticipate.  Even  strong,  personal  friendships  flourish 
best  only  on  constant  revelations  of  new  and  yet  undis- 
covered qualities.  Monotony  in  relations  of  friendship 
breeds  lack  of  interest.  We  are  interested  in  general 
only  in  what  directly  or  indirectly  tends  to  affect  us. 
Complete  ability  to  anticipate  how  one  will  react  to  a 
situation  soon  makes  an  appeal  to  our  curiosity  im- 
possible. 

The  good  leader  is  therefore  usually  not  too  com- 
municative or  talkative.  He  need  not  be  exclusive  or 
secretive  or  inscrutable,  though  some  leaders  are,  par- 
ticularly in  undemocratic  countries  and  institutions 
and  to  inferior  classes.  The  commander  likes  to  think 
of  himself  as  a  leader  of  real  men  not  of  some  inferior 
sort  of  individuals,  therefore  he  respects  these  men 
and  their  individualities.  Many  influential  leaders  are 
refined  and  considerate  in  personal  relations,  interested  in 
the  welfare  of  their  men  and  by  no  means  imposing  or 
dominating  in  social  life.  One  naturally  thinks  of 
Grant  in  this  class.  Strong  friendships  are  thus  built 
up  and  personal  antagonisms  are  removed.  Under 
democratic  conditions  high  personal  esteem  and  close 
acquaintance  cannot  detract  from  leadership  but  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  a  too  complete  revelation  of 
one's  self,  of  one's  ideas  and  plans,  in  personal  asso- 
ciations gives  others  a  great  advantage  over  one  and 
thereby  interferes  with  the  best  leadership.  Official 
matters,  of  course,  have  only  certain  channels  of  com- 
munication, and  freedom  with  such  matters  in  private 
conversation  with  subordinates  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  democratic  association  and  personal  in- 


80  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

terests.  Real  leadership,  it  is  important  ever  to  keep 
in  mind,  must  be  based  in  a  good  measure  on  actual 
superiority,  and  requires  regular,  hard  work  and  con- 
stant planning  by  one's  self. 

The  successful  handling  of  men  demands  consistency 
and  directness  of  action.  Enthusiasm  and  genuine  sin- 
cerity impress  others  with  the  importance  of  the  work 
one  is  engaged  in  and  call  out  greater  effort.  One  of  the 
most  effective  methods  of  influencing  others  is  to  look  for 
points  of  community  of  interests  with  them,  for  this 
.brings  about  similar  attitudes  and  shows  itself  in  the 
army  in  the  general  devotion  to  the  common  cause  known 
as  patriotism  or  loyalty,  of  which  we  shall  speak  later. 
The  man  whom  we  can  follow  with  the  greatest  con- 
fidence is  the  man  whom  we  feel  embodies  our  own 
ideas ;  he  gets  out  sympathy  and  co-operation.  This  atti- 
tude of  loyalty  depends  more  on  the  general  conduct  of 
the  officer  than  on  what  he  says  officially  or  otherwise. 
The  indirect  method  of  injecting  it  into  one's  subordin- 
ates is  doubtless  the  most  effective.  The  leader  can  never 
afford  to  reflect  anything  but  high  ideals  and  consistent, 
sound  character  in  all  his  associations  with  men,  for  the 
official  John  Doe  cannot  easily  be  dissociated  in  the  minds 
of  others  from  the  unofficial  John  Doe. 

In  official  relations  one  cannot  afford  to  tolerate 
familiarity  or  assumed  personal  advantage  by  anyone, 
based  on  former  social  relations.  A  mere  look  of  sur- 
prise at  any  such  encroachment  on  real  business,  or  per- 
haps a  short  pause  until  perfect  order  is  established,  is 
usually  a  very  effective  way  of  putting  down  any  pre- 
sumptions on  personal  friendship.  The  commanding  of- 
ficer is  responsible  to  the  government  for  what  he  says 
and  does  officially,  and  is  not  acting  in  any  personal  re- 
lation that  can  allow  of  favorites  in  the  sense  of  par- 
tiality. All  special  favors  must  be  on  the  basis  of  service 
and  efficiency.  A  strict  holding  to  this  principle  will 
mean  much  to  the  young  officer  in  securing  good  disci- 


LEADERSHIP  81 

pline  and  influence  over  his  men.  It  is  nothing  more  than 
an  attitude  of  profound  respect  for  his  high  calling  and 
his  work.  The  principle  is  to  be  practised  in  one's  be- 
havior and  in  no  sense  ostentatiously;  not  a  word  need 
be  said  about  it. 

The  successful  leader  and  executive  does  not  speak 
with  hesitancy  or  doubt  when  he  gives  his  directions.  He 
wastes  no  words  on  inattention  or  on  repetition  of  orders. 
Directions  are  given  with  implied  confidence  that  they  will 
be  carried  out  efficiently  and  cheerfully  even  though  such 
compliance  with  them  involves  great  danger  or  risk  of 
life.  All  the  best  qualities  of  a  real  soldier  are  assumed 
of  each  man,  and  this  gives  mutual  ^confidence  and  cour- 
age. Orders  should,  of  course,  be  given  with  sufficient 
clearness  and  definiteness  and  brevity  to  leave  no  doubt 
as  to  their  meaning.  The  giving  of  many  orders  with- 
out scrupulous  care  as  to  their  being  carried  out  cannot 
but  result  in  ultimate  carelessness  as  to  their  fulfilment. 

The  successful  leader  is  a  hard  worker,  never  allow- 
ing anyone  under  his  command  to  know  more  about  his 
work  than  he  does;  he  comes  to  his  official  duties  pre- 
pared to  meet  emergencies  and  to  anticipate  any  possi- 
ble difficulty  that  may  arise.  He  understands  human 
nature  and  knows  that  each  person  can  best  be  stimulated 
in  directions  that  accord  with  his  own  instincts  and  self- 
good.  The  leader  therefore  respects  individuality,  and 
skillfully  identifies  remote  self-good  with  common  wel- 
fare, and  he  shows  by  his  own  attitude  and  conduct  that 
he  is  but  representing  the  will  of  the  people.  He  does 
not  forget  that  some  of  the  more  remote  and  abstract 
ideals  which  give  direction  and  meaning  to  our  larger  ac- 
tivities, are  far  less  effective  bases  for  stimulating  many 
men  than  are  the  more  immediate  impulses  connected 
with  the  desire  to  stand  in  well  with  the  members  of  the 
local  group.  He  is  mindful  of  the  strength  of  personal 
appeals,  but  he  effectively  embodies  these  more  abstract 
principles  of  justice  and  patriotism  to  the  country's  cause. 


82  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

Planning  while  others  sleep  prevents  sleepless  nights 
and  breeds  self-confidence.  The  best  leader  never  rests  on 
his  oars ;  he  constantly  and  incidentally  reveals  knowledge 
and  insight  beyond  the  anticipation  of  his  men.  Good 
leaders  are  never  perfectly  determined  quantities.  There 
is  no  royal  road  to  leadership  for  it  demands  not  only 
superior  ability,  but  hard  work,  sincere  living,  and  a  high 
regard  for  justice  and  individuality.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  careful  attention  to  these  matters  and  per- 
sistent attempts  to  embody  such  characteristics  in  one's 
own  life  and  work  will  greatly  improve  one's  leadership 
and  influence. 

in 

The  first  rule  or  suggestion  to  follow  in  order  to  be 
a  successful  leader  is  to  know  more  than  your  men. 
Superior  knowledge  is  necessary  to  win  the  confidence 
of  one's  men.  This  can  only  be  secured  by  hard,  diligent 
labor.  If  an  officer  is  about  to  teach  a  company  of  new 
men  the  fundamentals  of  infantry  drill,  he  will  do  well  to 
get  out  his  Infantry  Drill  Regulations  and  review  every- 
thing pertaining  to  infantry  drill.  It  should  be  made  a 
rule  never  to  appear  before  the  men  without  being  pre- 
pared, for  a  leader  will  not  only  lose  the  confidence  and 
respect  of  his  men  if  some  one  in  the  ranks  knows  more 
about  the  subject  than  he  does,  but  he  will  appear  ridic- 
ulous to  them. 

The  leader  in  order  really  to  lead  must  be  popular  in 
the  better  sense  of  the  term  with  his  men.  Lieut.  Col. 
Lincoln  Andrews  in  his  work  on  the  Fundamentals  of 
Military  Service,  has  the  following  to  say  in  regard  to  the 
popularity  of  a  leader:  "It  is  proper  that  you  should 
aspire  to  popularity,  to  be  beloved  of  your  men,  to  be 
one  of  those  leaders  of  whom  it  is  boasted  that  their  men 
would  follow  them  anywhere/'  Popularity,  however,  is 
something  that  will  come  itself  if  it  is  merited,  and  while 
it  is  essential  to  the  success  of  the  leader  that  he  be  pop- 
ular with  his  men,  yet  in  his  actions  and  words  he  should 


LEADERSHIP  83 

not  convey  the  impression  that  he  is  courting  popularity. 
Real  popularity  is  not  attained  by  showing  favoritism  or 
by  overlooking  mistakes.  Popularity  gained  by  such 
methods  is  not  lasting  and  will  not  stand  the  acid  test  of 
experience.  The  only  solid,  enduring  popularity  is  that 
gained  by  exhibiting  the  qualities  of  justice  and  fairness 
in  one's  dealings  with  men. 

Another  thing  which  will  aid  materially  in  winning 
influence  among  the  men  is  to  study  their  point  of  view, 
mentally  to  "place  one's  self  in  their  shoes"  and  thus  to 
avoid  the  mistakes  of  misunderstanding  the  men,  and  the 
most  natural  and  best  methods  of  training  and  teaching 
them  naturally  occur  to  one.  The  English  officers,  de- 
spite the  popular  notion  that  prevails  about  the  strict  lines 
drawn  between  the  men  and  officers,  have  been  admired 
and  adored  by  their  men,  due  to  the  courage  and  bravery 
exhibited  by  them.  A  French  officer,  who  is  at  the  pres- 
ent time  lecturing  here  for  his  government,  related  a  very 
interesting  incident  of  how  he  had  won  over  his  men's 
confidence  and  respect.  His  company  was  occupying  a 
sector  of  the  front  line  trenches  and  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  de- 
tail a  soldier  to  perform  a  perilous  mission,  which  neces- 
sitated his  traversing  a  section  of  "no  man's  land"  over 
which  a  heavy  shell  fire  was  falling.  The  poilu  looked 
at  the  officer  and  said :  "Sir,  do  you  realize  what  it  means 
to  go  out  there?"  The  officer  felt  that  his  discipline 
would  be  weakened  if  he  argued  with  the  man,  and  he 
knew  that  some  drastic  measure  had  to  be  taken.  He 
looked  out  over  the  parapet  of  the  trench  and  as  he 
watched  the  falling  shells  he  noticed  that  they  were  falling 
in  well  defined  lanes,  and  the  idea  came  tg  him  of  pick- 
ing a  path  through  the  shell  fire.  He  turned  to  the  poilu : 
"I  suppose  you  will  risk  it  if  I  accompany  you  out  over 
that  hill."  The  French  soldier  protested  against  his 
lieutenant  going  to  certain  death,  but  the  officer  insisted 
on  accompanying  him  and  so  they  started  out.  The  jour- 
ney out  and  back  was  made  without  mishap,  and  on  his 


84  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

return  to  the  trench  the  officer's  men  literally  hugged  him 
in  true  French  fashion,  kissing  his  hands  and  hanging 
onto  his  knees.  The  incident  had  the  effect  of  winning 
the  confidence  and  the  respect  of  every  man  in  his  com- 
pany, and  from  that  day  on  he  never  had  to  select  an- 
other man  for  a  perilous  task,  for  men  in  the  company 
willingly  volunteered  whenever  occasion  arose.  Of 
course  spectacular  exhibitions  of  courage  such  as  the 
foregoing  are  not  usually  necessary  to  win  popularity 
among  the  men  or  even  wise  as  a  rule,  but  it  has  been 
common  knowledge  that  the  French  and  the  English  offi- 
cers have  set  the  pace  for  their  men.  However,  the  most 
important  thing  to  keep  in  mind  is  the  necessity  of  fair 
and  impartial  treatment  of  the  men.  In  assigning  work  it 
is  important  to  see  that  each  man  does  his  share,  and 
does  it  in  strict  compliance  with  orders. 

In  drilling  and  teaching  his  men  the  efficient  officer 
will  always  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  average  man 
takes  pride  in  doing  his  work  well.  When  the  work  is 
digging  a  trench  he  will  find  more  interest  in  his  work  if 
it  is  properly  directed  and  is  well  done ;  when  it  is  com- 
pany drill  the  men  will  enjoy  it  more  and  find  more  in- 
terest in  the  performance  of  the  drill  if  it  is  snappy  and 
performed  in  proper  manner.  And  the  application  of  this 
principle  is  made  by  keeping  a  close  watch  on  the  efforts 
of  the  men,  rewarding  deserving  efforts  with  a  word  of 
praise  or  correcting  their  mistakes  in  a  definite,  manly 
way.  The  men  cannot  help  but  feel  elated  over  doing 
their  work  well,  and  the  leader  makes  a  mistake  if  he 
thinks  he  is  pleasing  them  by  allowing  them  to  slop 
through  their  work. 

In  handling  men  the  leader  must  bear  in  mind  that 
he  is  not  only  the  leader  by  right  of  authority  but  that  he 
must  be  the  leader  in  fact.  He  must  set  the  pace  and  the 
men  will  look  to  him  as  an  example.  If  he  is  taking  the 
men  on  a  hike  his  place  is  at  the  head  of  the  column ;  if 
the  path  carries  them  over  rough,  difficult  pieces  of  road 


LEADERSHIP  85 

he  must  lead  the  men  over  these  places.  In  action,  re- 
gardless of  how  he  re,ally  feels,  the  leader  must  be  so 
trained  and  self -disciplined  that  he  can  put  up  a  fearless, 
unexcited  appearance.  If  he  appears  frightened  the  same 
state  of  mind  will  be  communicated  to  the  men;  if  he  is 
perfectly  at  ease  and  complacent  under  the  circumstances 
they  will  quickly  fall  into  the  same  mental  attitude. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the  make-up  of 
a  successful  leader  is  his  ability  to  make  decisions  quickly 
and  to  carry  them  out  in  a  commanding  manner.  A 
leader  is  helpless  before  his  men  if  he  shows  any  hesi- 
tancy about  what  to  do  under  any  circumstances  that  call 
for  a  quick  decision.  Decisiveness  in  action  can  be  de- 
veloped to  a  certain  extent  while  in  garrison  training. 
Circumstances  are  always  arising  which  call  for  quick  de- 
cisions, and  while  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  best  deci- 
sion under  the  circumstances  one  must  sometimes  sacri- 
fice the  value  of  reflection  for  speed. 

An  officer  to  become  a  leader  of  his  men  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  word  must  not  only  give  them  commands, 
direct  their  efforts  and  teach  them  military  science,  but 
he  should  also  look  after  their  material  needs;  he  should 
watch  their  mess,  and  should  see  that  they  are  well  out- 
fitted. In  a  word  he  must  be  something  of  a  father  to  his 
men.  In  return  the  men  will  develop  a  warm  regard  bor- 
dering on  affection  for  their  officers.  It  is  human  nature 
to  strive  to  please  those  who  are  interested  in  us,  and 
the  men  will  quickly  learn  whether  or  not  their  leader  has 
their  interest  at  heart. 

One  thing  the  officer  cannot  be  too  careful  about  is  the 
giving  of  orders.  In  the  first  place  he  should  limit  the 
orders  to  as  few  as  possible,  and  they  should  be  given 
neither  in  a  harsh  nor  in  a  pleading  tone.  Nagging  the 
men  or  treating  them  as  if  they  were  servants  can  have  no 
result  but  that  of  arousing  antagonism  of  some  sort,  and 
on  the  other  hand  the  officer  is  charged  with  responsibil- 
ity regarding  matters  under  his  own  command  that  en- 


86  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

ables  him  confidently  to  expect  the  carrying  out  of  his 
orders.  Orders  can  be  so  couched  that  they  assume  will- 
ing co-operation  and  indicate  that  there  is  in  the  mind  of 
the  officer  no  uncertainty  as  to  whether  they  will  be 
obeyed.  It  is  important  to  see  that  every  order  is  prompt- 
ly and  intelligently  carried  out  to  the  letter,  for  if  one 
gives  leeway  the  habit  of  allowing  slight  omissions  to 
occur  will  grow  until  these  omissions  border  on  insub- 
ordination, and  for  such  a  condition  the  officer  only,  on 
the  last  analysis,  is  responsible. 

'The  American  soldier,"  says  Major  McCoy,  "does 
not  like  the  French  familiarity  nor  the  English  patroniz- 
ing ways,  and  intercourse  should  be  in  keeping  with  the 
customs  of  the  service.  The  popularity  seeker,  or  freely 
familiar  officer,  soon  acquires  the  disdain  or  contempt 
of  his  men.  If  he  is  going  to  lead  them  in  hard  times 
and  have  their  willing  and  instinctive  respect  in  follow- 
ing, he  must  exercise  a  quiet  patience  and  an  insistence 
on  their  rights  and  privileges,  and  a  keen  interest  in  their 
comfort  and  welfare.  The  intimate  service  in  the  field 
will  give  him  every  opportunity  for  showing  this.  It 
must  not  be  forced. 

"Self-control  is  the  most  important  faculty  of  com- 
mand over  Americans — an  even  tone  of  voice  and  a  quiet, 
cool  way.  When  you  speak  to  a  man,  use  his  name,  never 
the  old-fashioned  terms  of  'you  man'  or  'my  man*  or  any 
other  patronizing  expression  or  tone  of  voice.  Show  a 
lively  interest  in  everything  that  is  going  on  in  the  way 
of  both  work  and  sport,  and  cultivate  the  utmost  discrim- 
ination in  giving  rewards  and  punishments. 

"Study  the  temperament  and  characteristics  of  your 
men,  and  remember  that  punishment  itself  is  not  an  end 
but  a  means  for  better  work  and  particular  reform.  Be 
sympathetic  but  not  soft-hearted  at  the  wrong  moment. 
Remember  that  enlisted  men  in  barracks  are  not  'plaster- 
of-paris  saints/  but  have  all  of  the  little  faults  and  at  the 
same  time  the  fine  loyalty  and  often  splendid  qualities 


LEADERSHIP  87 

of  the  young  American.  Most  of  your  soldiers  are  not 
much  more  than  boys,  and  they  should  be  handled  as 
such. 

"Your  heart  will  warm  particularly  to  the  noncoms. 
They  have  been  tried  by  fire  and  are  usually  a  splendid  lot 
and  stand  by  you  through  thick  and  thin,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  finest  experiences  of  the  service  to  go  through  hard 
times  with  them."  (Op.  cit.,  143,  144.) 

Major  General  George  Bell,  Jr.,  in  the  letter  already 
referred  to,  says :  "It  is  impossible  to  reduce  to  rules 
the  proper  method  of  dealing  with  large  bodies  of  men 
because  the  personal  equation  so  greatly  modifies  vari- 
ous cases.  With  some,  sheer  force  is  the  only  way  to  com- 
pel obedience;  with  others  tact;  with  others  persuasion, 
etc.,  but  a  very  potent  influence  can  always  be  exerted  by 
the  appeal  to  reason  and  by  showing  men  who  possess 
ordinary  intelligence  that  there  is  a  very  well  founded 
reason  for  certain  customs  and  practices  in  the  military 
service." 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING 


The  change  in  the  life  of  the  civilian  which  is  to  make 
him  into  a  full-fledged  soldier  is  fundamentally  a  matter 
of  learning,  and  when  one  contemplates  the  enormity  of 
the  task  before  the  Government  in  changing  so  radically 
the  lives  of  millions  of  men  in  the  short  time  available 
one  sees  the  importance  of  having  the  officers  upon  whom 
this  work  devolves  approach  the  work  as  intelligently  as 
possible.  The  officer  in  the  training  camps  becomes 
fundamentally  a  teacher. 

A  large  factor  in  the  success  of  any  organization  in 
most  lines  of  activity  is  the  degree  of  efficiency  applied 
to  the  methods  of  teaching  its  members  the  tricks  of  the 
trade.  Most  of  the  large  industries  realizing  the  truth  of 
this  fact  have  long  since  discarded  the  merely  haphazard 
method  of  breaking  in  their  employes.  These  firms  now 
employ  the  best  talent  in  the  country  to  evolve  the  most 
efficient  ways  and  means  of  teaching  their  men  and  they 
frequently  incorporate  these  principles  in  short  courses  to 
which  the  men  have  access  before  taking  up  their  work 
within  the  firm.  In  many  cases  a  great  deal  of  considera- 
tion is  given  to  individual  differences  among  the  em- 
ployes, backward  individuals  being  given  special  coach- 
ing and  instruction  and  every  man  being  put  into  the  serv- 
ice for  which  he  is  best  fitted  by  nature,  as  far  as  this  is 
possible. 

In  many  different  fields  the  essential  elements  of 
learning  have  been  so  carefully  analyzed  as  to  enable  the 
learner  under  scientific  direction  to  advance  much  more 
rapidly  than  he  could  otherwise  do,  and  to  reach  a:  ligher 
point  of  efficiency.  The  brick-layer,  for  instance,  is 
far  more  efficient  today  than  he  was  a  couple  of  decades 

88 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  89 

ago ;  he  has  learned  just  how  to  use  his  muscles,  tools,  and 
materials  to  practically  the  best  advantage.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  workers  in  many  other  lines  of  the  industries 
to  which  scientific  methods  have  been  applied.  Where- 
ever  premium  is  put  on  the  accuracy  and  quickness  of 
highly  co-ordinated  movements  and  on  the  co-operation 
of  many  hands,  better  analysis  and  consequently  great  im- 
provement is  bound  to  take  place.  It  is  accuracy  of  test- 
ing* results  and  high  rewards  for  the  best  results  that  bring 
out  improvement  in  methods. 

In  athletics  these  conditions  usually  obtain;  contest 
has  put  a  high  value  on  efficiency,  and  results  in  their 
grosser  features  at  least  are  easily  determined.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  we  find  that  in  the  various  specialized  lines 
of  athletics  the  methods  of  training  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved. While  most  of  the  older  generation  spent  a  long 
time  during  several  summers  learning  to  swim,  as  boys 
left  to  themselves  still  do,  it  is  now  possible  for  an  expert 
by  emphasizing  and  calling  out  the  most  efficient  move- 
ments to  teach  one  to  swim  in  a  very  short  time.  The 
same  thing  is  true  of  skating.  Without  expert  assistance 
one  may  spend  several  winters  learning  to  be  highly  effi- 
cient, but  a  good  instructor  will  enable  one  to  show  sur- 
prising improvement  in  a  dozen  lessons.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  such  instructors  in  various  highly  specialized  per- 
formances have  found  just  how  best  to  emphasize  the 
most  efficient  movements  that  one  makes  in  the  early 
trials  and  how  to  eliminate  with  the  greatest  advantage 
all  unnecessary  movements.  The  athletic  coach  of  today 
teaches  the  runners  to  utilize  every  ounce  of  muscle  in 
their  strides  so  as  to  avoid  placing  any  extra  burden  on 
certain  muscles  and  thus  to  bring  on  fatigue  too  rapidly. 
In  rowing  the  coach  instructs  the  beginner  to  equalize 
the  eiLrtion  of  each  stroke  by  distributing  the  work  over 
all  the  muscles  of  the  body;  and,  everything  else  being 
equal,  the  crew  which  has  the  smallest  amount  of  lost 
motion  in  the  strokes  wins  the  race. 


90  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

In  the  field  of  education  much  progress  has  been  made 
because  of  the  fact  that  more  accurate  methods  of  meas- 
uring results  have  been  worked  out  and  also  because 
better  means  of  analyzing  the  processes  are  thus  afforded. 
In  this  field,  however,  there  is  yet  much  to  be  learned, 
for  at  the  present  time  the  emphasis  is  put  chiefly  on 
methods  of  measuring  results  and  of  testing  the  indi- 
viduals for  better  classification.  Greater  emphasis  on 
improved  methods  of  learning  is  bound  to  come  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  accuracy  with  which  results  of  different 
methods  can  now  be  measured.  At  present  there  is  un- 
fortunately a  tendency  to  neglect  motivation  methods  in 
the  mere  routine  of  the  drills. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  great  improvement  in  the 
methods  of  training  recruits  are  to  come,  particularly  now 
that  time  is  a  most  important  consideration  and  that 
the  most  efficient  officers  are  everywhere  so  much  in  de- 
mand that  much  of  the  work  of  training  will  necessarily 
be  left  to  younger  men.  Many  young  officers  will  find 
themselves  charged  with  responsibilities  that  will  compel 
them  more  or  less  to  fall  into  mechanical  and  stereotyped 
procedures.  While  the  various  movements  in  formal 
military  drill  are  rather  uniform  for  all  the  men,  there 
are  under  present  practices  excellent  opportunities  for  the 
progressive  officer  to  put  individuality  and  snap  into  his 
work. 

I  recall  one  young  officer  who  conducted  classes  each 
day  in  guard  duty.  During  the  various  sessions  that  I 
attended  this  instructor  never  resorted  to  illustrations  in 
explaining  the  many  different  phases  of  his  subject.  A 
number  of  questions  and  difficulties  would  come  up  each 
day  which  could  easily  have  been  cleared  up  by  the  use 
of  a  few  apt  illustrations.  With  a  few  suggestions  such 
an  officer  might  greatly  improve  his  efficiency.  On  the 
other  hand  I  have  seen  officers  who  made  their  subjects  so 
clear  and  interesting  by  means  of  illustrations,  and  pro- 
vided so  well  for  proper  motivation  to  real  effort,  that 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  91 

students  were  enthusiastic  and  made  excellent  progress. 
As  better  methods  of  measuring  results  develop  and  as 
the  demand  for  the  best  officers  increases,  as  it  is  certain 
to  do  during  the  progress  of  the  present  war,  such  differ- 
ences will  become  more  and  more  marked  and  the  efficient 
officer  will  find  himself  at  a  tremendous  advantage. 

The  great  improvement  that  regularly  shows  itself  in 
learning  when  the  most  efficient  methods  are  employed 
was  illustrated  in  the  increased  rate  of  progress  made  by 
the  students  of  the  second  officers'  reserve  training  camps 
over  that  of  the  students  of  the  first  series  of  training 
camps.  It  has  been  freely  admitted  that  in  the  second 
series  the  students  covered  more  ground  in  the  first  three 
weeks  than  was  gone  over  by  those  of  the  first  series  in 
five.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  the  selection  of  the  most  useful  procedures  by 
the  officers  who  are  to  train  the  recruits,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  princi- 
ples underlying  learning  will  be  very  helpful  to  those  who 
have  this  important  work  immediately  in  hand. 

ii 

Few  animals  are  born  with  instincts  and  dispositions 
that  fully  meet  the  needs  of  their  environment.  The  acts 
of  some  animals  are  much  more  nearly  pre-determined  by 
their  inherited  structure  than  are  those  of  others.  In 
many  cases  reproduction  is  on  so  large  a  scale  that  many 
of  the  individuals  may  be  eliminated  by  slight  errors  in 
response  and  still  enough  of  their  fellows  will  by  chance 
survive  for  the  continuance  of  the  species.  Certain 
types  of  animals  have  so  short  lives,  or  live  in  environ- 
ment (e.  g.,  water)  where  changes  are  so  slight,  that  there 
is  little  need  of  modification  of  their  behavior.  But 
higher  animals,  living  through  many  seasonal  changes,  are 
usually  more  plastic  so  that  they  can  become  accommo- 
dated to  the  changes  of  conditions  about  them,  or  acquire 
habits  of  their  own  which  will  supplement  the  original 
instincts.  In  general  such  changes  brought  about  in  in- 


92  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

stincts  by  shaping  them  for  individual  emergencies  are 
what  we  call  habits,  and  the  acquiring  of  the  habits  is 
learning.  To  learn  is  to  modify  one's  instinctive  ways 
of  responding  to  given  circumstances  so  that  the  results 
of  the  acts  will  be  more  favorable  to  the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual himself,  and  therefore  to  his  group.  In  plastic 
animals,  like  man,  all  instincts  have  to  be  trained  more 
or  less  for  normal  functioning. 

It  is  of  course  true  that  not  all  acts  learned  are  help- 
ful to  the  individual  in  the  long  run;  many  habits  ac- 
quired under  local  or  temporary  conditions  even  hamper 
the  individual  later  in  larger  situations,  and  operate 
against  the  acquirement  of  more  valuable  habits.  But 
our  point  is,  that  for  the  proper  motive  to  exist  in  the 
formation  of  habits  in  men  we  should  not  get  too  far  away 
from  the  stimulation  of  the  original  instinctive  tendencies, 
tendencies  that  predispose  the  individual  not  only  to  act 
in  certain  ways  but  to  be  interested  in  matters  affecting 
his  own  welfare.  The  good  teacher  and  trainer  never 
forgets  this;  he  consequently  gets  better  effort  and  less 
inner  resistance.  The  instructor  who  is  to  be  most  suc- 
cessful, therefore,  in  the  training  of  others  must  keep 
in  mind  some  of  the  elementary  principles  of  behavior; 
he  must  not  forget  that  external  stimuli  to  effort  or  activ- 
ity are  means  of  bringing  about  action  because  they  are 
related  to  inner  needs  and  to  instinctive  tendencies  of  the 
individual  organism,  and  because  they  somehow  give  ex- 
pression to  the  innate  dispositions  of  the  individual.  The 
writer  one  time  had  a  special  student  in  arithmetic  who 
made  wonderful  progress.  He  was  a  life  insurance  agent, 
and  was  promised  a  considerable  increase  in  salary  at  a 
certain  date,  provided  he  could  be  ready  to  assume  the 
more  difficult  duties  going  along  with  the  higher  position. 
For  the  new  work  he  was  deficient  in  mathematics.  His 
learning  activities  were  therefore  motivated  rather  di- 
rectly by  strong  instinctive  tendencies,  and  he  made  rapid 
and  cheerful  progress.  The  instructor  in  the  training 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  93 

camps  must  give  the  learners  a  vision  of  what  the  acts  to 
be  learned  lead  to ;  he  must  give  them  perspective  so  that 
their  instincts  and  ambitions  can  play  into  and  through 
the  activities  or  formalities  to  be  acquired.  This  enlivens 
and  gives  spirit  to  the  work,  and  furnishes  motive  for 
hard  individual  efforts.  Where  other  motives  fail  rivalry 
or  emulation,  as  we  have  seen,  may  be  utilized ;  these  are 
impulses  to  out-do  some  one  else,  or,  more  abstractly,  to 
distinguish  one's  self.  Competition  among  groups  is  a 
principle  that  has  wide  application  and  large  possibilities. 

Acts  learned  are  not  new  things  taken  on,  then ;  they 
are  not  disinteresting  matters  unrelated  to  our  welfare, 
but  are  modifications  of  ourselves  and  never  leave  us 
what  we  were  before.  The  acts  the  soldier  is  to  learn  are 
modifications  in  his  instinctive  equipment  to  fit  him  to 
do  given  things,  to  distinguish  himself  in  such  and  such 
lines  of  national  service.  The  formalities  of  military  life 
which  confront  the  new  recruit  can  be  much  more 
quickly  learned  and  heartily  incorporated  if  it  is  made 
clear  to  him  what  they  mean. 

For  purely  practical  purposes  in  the  consideration  of 
this  subject  it  will  be  advisable  to  distinguish  two  classes 
of  learning:  (1)  the  learning  of  practically  new  acts  or  of 
difficult  combinations  of  acts  only  partly  under  control 
and  (2)  the  modification  to  a  slighter  degree  and  the  per-- 
fection  of  habits  or  movements  already  under  voluntary 
control.  For  short  we  shall  refer  to  these  as  Class  I  and 
Class  II,  respectively.  Class  I  includes  such  things  as 
learning  originally  to  talk,  to  get  voluntary  control  of 
one's  various  finer  movements,  to  walk,  to  skate,  to  jug- 
gle balls  (to  keep  two  balls  going  in  the  air  with  one 
hand,  catching  and  throwing  one  while  the  other  is  in 
the  air),  to  trace  some  irregular  figure  by  watching  the 
hand  movements  in  the  mirror  only,  etc.  The  last  two 
illustrations  are  somewhat  artificial,  but  very  useful  for 
illustrative  experiments  on  learning.  Class  II  would  in- 
clude increasing  one's  rate,  ease,  and  legibility  of  hand- 


94  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

writing;  learning  a  foreign  language  when  one  already 
has  control  of  the  speech  organs;  improving  one's  lan- 
guage, spelling,  enunciation,  bearing;  learning  to  play 
musical  instruments  and  to  sing;  learning  telegraphy, 
typewriting,  stenography;  learning  the  various  sciences, 
their  methods  of  investigation,  their  terms,  theories,  etc. ; 
making  improvements  in  various  daily  activities,  and  so 
on.  Clearly  most  of  the  things  that  recruits  must  learn 
are  in  Class  II. 

When  a  new  act  of  Class  I  is  being  acquired  the  first 
thing  to  note  is  that  some  strongly  impelling  inner  im- 
pulse is  manifest,  such  as  hunger,  impulses  to  escape  from 
confinement,  impulses  to  more  effective  self  expression, 
or  to  escape  from  excessive  or  painful  stimulating  con- 
ditions. When  men  began  experimenting  on  the  learn- 
"ing  of  animals  the  first  problem  was  to  supply  a  proper 
motive,  different  from  that  needed  by  an  adult  person, 
for  the  animal  to  attempt  doing  something.  Such  a 
motive  was  found  in  hunger,  in  escape  from  confine- 
ment or  from  punishment,  or  in  letting  the  animal  try  to 
get  to  its  fellows  from  which  it  had  been  separated.  We 
lose  sight  of  some  of  these  motives  under  the  artificial 
conditions  of  our  human  environment,  but  they  must  be 
there  just  the  same  and  ought  to  be  utilized  as  far  as  pos- 
sible if  we  are  to  get  the  best  effort.  No  learning  takes 
place,  even  in  man,  without  some  sort  of  motivation  to 
the  effort.  No  person  learns  comparatively  well  and 
readily  that  about  which  he  is  somewhat  indifferent,  un- 
less it  is  some  insignificant  act  accidently  associated  with 
instinctive  responses.  We  see  conditions  so  far  ahead  of 
us  that  often  it  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  is  actuating  us. 
In  the  case  of  animals  the  necessity  of  proper  motivation 
to  learning  therefore  comes  out  more  clearly.  Proper 
motivation  to  training  acts  of  Class  II  is  also  necessary, 
though  not  so  obvious  to  superficial  observation. 

The  second  fact  to  be  noted  about  learning   acts   of 
Class  I  is  that  a  great  number  of  apparently  useless  acts 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  95 

occur  on  the  first  trials;  excessive,  random  movements 
take  place  in  an  orderless  manner.  These  cannot  be  pre- 
vented even  in  an  adult  man.  Try  it  in  ball  tossing  or 
mirror  tracing!  The  child  in  learning  to  walk  makes 
numerous  arm,  leg  and  body  movements  that  are  after- 
wards unnecessary  and  are  therefore  later  eliminated.  In 
trying  to  skate  for  the  first  time  one  throws  the  arms  and 
legs  about  to  keep  balanced,  bringing  into  play  almost 
every  muscle  of  the  body.  Except  for  momentary  periods 
these  balancing  movements  take  practically  the  entire  at- 
tention. All  other  things  lose  their  importance  for  the 
time  and  one  becomes  wholly  involved  in  the  new  experi- 
ence. The  same  thing  is  true  of  many  other  acts  of  Class 
I  that  could  be  selected  as  illustrations.  These  excess 
movements  remind  one  very  much  of  those  seen  in  cases 
of  extreme  excitement,  as  in  anger,  fear,  or  joy,  or  even 
in  worry.  In  both  cases  there  seem  to  be  overflows  of 
nerve  impulses  into  various  pathways  which  later  are 
discarded,  just  as  we  see  water  overflow  its  bounds  and 
spread  if  something  interferes  with  its  free  flow,  or  when 
it  spreads  over  a  new  field  for  the  first  time. 

The  third  important  point  about  learning  is  the 
gradual  elimination  of  these  useless  or  irrelevant  move- 
ments, just  as  the  water  soon  wears  for  itself  a  definite 
channel  and  therefore  ceases  to  spread.  Continued  trials 
in  the  learning  of  some  new  act  and  also  in  the  improve- 
ment of  acts  (Class  II)  soon  lead  to  a  great  reduction  in 
the  errors  made  and  in  the  time  taken  for  a  certain  per- 
formance. The  person  learning  to  skate  gradually  de- 
creases the  irregular  arm  and  body  movements,  and  be- 
comes correspondingly  freer  to  attend  to  surrounding  ob- 
jects and  persons.  It  is  hardly  right  to  say,  as  is  often 
done,  that  this  comes  about  by  repetition;  for  by  mere 
repetition  of  such  movements  as  appear  useless  and  irrel- 
evant he  would  never  learn,  but  would  continue  to  make 
all  those  ungainly  movements  and  to  fall  down.  Only 
certain  acts  are  repeated,  the  most  fit  ones,  that  is,  those 


96  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

that  are  most  fit  for  the  purpose  in  view  (or  for  the 
needs  of  the  organism,  or  acts  accidently  associated  with 
such  needs,  when  no  conscious  purpose  is  present). 

Learning  is  therefore  largely  a  process  of  selecting 
from  many  random  acts  those  most  fit  for  the  purpose, 
or  most  successful  for  the  attainment  of  the  thing  to  be 
accomplished.  Often,  it  must  be  noted,  this  selection  is 
not  done  consciously,  and  the  individual  can  give  no  satis- 
factory statement  of  the  selection  later  or  say  how  it  was 
brought  about.  Even  in  lower  animals  learning  goes  on 
by  precisely  the  same  general  means,  or  through  these 
same  stages.  A  rat  put  into  a  problem  maze  containing 
many  'blinds'  and  irregular  windings  will  at  first  run 
into  now  one,  now  another,  until  the  food  he  was  pre- 
viously allowed  to  taste  is  found.  In  subsequent  trials 
these  errors  are  rapidly  eliminated.  So  also  with  the  ran- 
dom clawings,  bitings,  and  other  movements  of  a  cat 
getting  out  of  a  problem  box  closed,  let  us  say,  by  a  latch. 
Gradually  the  movements  that  raise  the  latch  survive 
over  all  the  others.  This  result  could  never  be  obtained 
by  mere  repetition  of  all  the  original  random  movements. 

Finally,  when  the  act  is  learned  we  get  only  the  suc- 
cessful movements  called  out  by  the  stimulus  and  these 
are  performed  quickly,  uniformly,  and  with  little  or  no 
thought  of  them,  so  that  the  individual  can  be  free  to  at- 
tend to  other  things.  At  this  stage  the  habit  is  formed, 
but  additional  practice  will  continue  more  and  more  to 
consolidate  it  and  will  make  it  more  permanent  and  more 
difficult  to  interfere  with  by  other  acts  or  habits.  The 
rapidity  of  habitual  acts,  their  ease,  uniformity  in  speed, 
and  the  diminution  of  effort  expended,  all  make  for 
economy.  Many  of  our  acts  can  well  be  reduced  to  the 
mechanical,  semi-conscious  type  so  that  they  will  take 
care  of  themselves  when  we  merely  think  of  or  are  con- 
fronted by,  the  situation  requiring  them.  This  will  leave 
us  freer  to  make  ready  in  thought  for  larger  matters.  A 
large  number  of  our  acts  so  seldom  occur  in  certain  par- 


.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  97 

ticular  combinations,  however,  that  they  can  never  he 
thus  reduced  to  a  clap-trap  performance;  they  remain 
more  or  less  conscious  or  deliberate.  This  is,  of  course, 
fortunate  on  the  whole,  for  otherwise  we  should  soon  be 
reduced  to  mere  unconscious  automata — living  machines 
— as  some  insects  may  be.  It  is  important  for  the  trainer 
to  keep  these  general  facts  in  mind,  so  that  he  can  work 
to  a  purpose,  intelligently  organizing  the  soldier's  life  for 
the  most  rational  and  effective  expression. 

One  should  not  hastily  conclude  that  the  random,  un- 
co-ordinated  acts  noticeable  in  the  early  stages  of  learn- 
ing, or  in  doing  a  thing  that  is  new  to  us,  are  useless  and 
wholly  to  be  prevented  if  possible.  In  an  important 
sense  they  doubtless  give  an  individual  his  bearings,  his 
general  orientation  with  respect  to  the  appropriate  re- 
sponse ;  they  make  him  more  adaptable.  Neurally  speak- 
ing they  doubtless  open  up  to  a  degree  other  channels  so 
that  in  case  the  stereotyped  act,  which  is  the  outcome 
of  the  training,  fails  to  suffice  under  changing  condi- 
tions, new  acts  appropriate  to  the  circumstances  may 
more  easily  become  organized.  For  specific  performance 
in  some  particular  circumstances  it  may  be  profitable  to 
stereotype  acts  by  as  great  a  short  cut  method  as  possi- 
ble, preventing  if  it  can  be  done  the  excess  movements, 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  a  general  use  of  this  method 
would  not  greatly  limit  one's  general  efficiency  and  adapt- 
ability. It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  one  may  go  to  ex- 
tremes either  way.  The  random  acts  seem  to  have  a  real 
function  in  keeping  one  alive  to  larger  co-ordinations  and 
to  the  various  uses  that  may  be  made  of  the  specific  habits 
learned,  and  also  in  keeping  one  more  physically  fit  and 
adaptable  and  mentally  more  resourceful. 

Acts  which  are  to  be  mechanically  performed  under 
the  direction  and  control  of  larger  voluntary  activities 
should  be  reduced  as  quickly  as  possible  to  the  automa- 
ticity  of  habits.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  a  proper 
distribution  of  practices,  say  a  short  time  daily  for  many 


98  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

days,  rather  than  by  a  too  concentrated  practice  of  long 
periods  for  but  a  few  days.  For  example,  twenty  fif- 
teen-minute periods  coming  about  once  daily  are  gener- 
ally more  effective  in  such  cases,  other  things  equal,  than 
five  hours  in  succession,  than  one  hour  daily  for  five  days, 
or  even  than  thirty  minutes  daily-  for  ten  days.  The  exact 
economy  here  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  nature  of 
the  act  practiced  and  on  the  condition  of  the  individual, 
and  cannot  be  definitely  stated  without  investigation  on 
the  specific  problem.  Too  long  a  period  between  each 
practice  is  also  not  the  most  favorable. 

Full  and  complete  attention  to  the  drill,  with  a  rec- 
ognition of  the  part  the  mechanical  act  when  learned  is 
to  play  in  the  larger  voluntary  acts,  is  necessary  for  the 
greatest  progress  in  it.  Such  intelligently  directed  effort 
for  short,  regular  periods  prevents  the  occurrence  of  the 
fatigue  that  would  be  inevitable  under  longer  drills  and 
it  also  keeps  up  the  motive  or  the  energy  necessary  for 
intense  effort. 

The  successful  director  of  learning  and  training  proc- 
esses does  not  allow  himself  and  his  men  to  become  so 
involved  in  mere  technical  details  of  practice  as  to  lose 
sight  of  the  larger  perspective  and  the  real  impelling 
motives  to  human  conduct.  He  does  not  forget  that  nor- 
mally learning,  or  changes  in  our  instincts  and  habits, 
takes  place  only  when  our  organic  needs  and  desires  are 
not  properly  met.  In  other  words,  so  long  as  we  have 
everything  that  we  desire  and  need,  in  the  broader  sense 
of  the  terms,  we  put  forth  no  effort  to  learn  new  acts. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  important  as  detailed  mat- 
ters relating  to  methods  of  procedure,  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  practice,  to  fatigue  effects,  etc.  are,  the  attitude  of 
the  learner  may  outweigh,  positively  or  negatively,  the 
effects  of  probably  all  these.  The  learner  must  be  mo- 
tivated from  within;  he  must  have  an  eagerness  and  an 
alertness,  a  will  to  learn,  that  make  him  throw  him- 
self actively  into  the  work. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  99 

In  fact,  two  of  the  things  that  are  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  learning  are,  first,  the  setting  up  of  definite, 
well  understood  and  attainable  standards  to  be  reached, 
and  accurate,  objective  means  of  showing  when  they 
are  reached  or  how  far  one  falls  short,  and  in  what 
manner,  of  attaining  them;  and,  second,  the  arousal 
of  the  proper  ambition  or  of  adequate  motives 
in  the  learner.  It  is  simply  surprising  what  a  man 
can  accomplish  when  these  conditions  are  fulfilled, 
when  the  standards  are  not  put  too  high  all  at  once, 
but  are  definite  and  exacting,  and  results  are  accur- 
ately and  objectively  checked;  and  when  with  these 
conditions  one  is  made  to  feel  that  the  attainment  of 
the  ends  or  the  making  of  a  good  record  is  vitally  re- 
lated to  one's  personal  welfare  and  future  in  one  or 
more  of  the  ways  that  we  have  indicated  or  will  point 
out  later.  The  learner's  interest  is  of  fundamental 
importance.  Under  these  conditions  the  instructor 
will  find  how  much  real  men  enjoy  strenuous,  well  di- 
rected work  and  drill.  When  properly  motivated  men 
are  not  shirks,  but  they  are  aroused  best  when  they 
see  that  there  is  real  worth  and  test  of  manhood  in 
what  they  do.  Under  these  conditions  they  go  at  the 
details  of  drill  and  practice  and  enter  into  work  with 
whole-hearted  effort. 

There  are  also  other  advantages  of  giving  drill  work 
proper  perspective  and  motivation  which  cannot  be  ex- 
plained here.  Intelligent  recognition  of  the  role  that 
any  such  automatic  habit  is  to  play  will  also  prevent, 
possibly,  conflict  of  impulses  and  of  the  motives  to 
practice. 

Of  this  latter  point  more  should  be  said  with  speci- 
fic reference  to*  the  training  of  men  for  duty  in  the 
army.  Men  who  enter  the  army  come  "rather  suddenly 
into  a  new  type  of  life ;  ideals  are  new,  methods  are 
new,  and  the  tools,  or  instruments  of  warfare,  are,  in 
the  main,  new.  But  most  of  the  acts  to  be  learned  be- 


100  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

long  to  our  Class  II,  described  above;  that  is,  the  ele- 
ments of  the  acts  are  already  under  voluntary  control. 
The  specific  acts,  however,  must  be  so  related  to  other 
acts  and  to  ideas  of  the  new  situations  that  when  called 
for  or  demanded  by  the  necessities  of  the  situation 
they  take  place  quickly,  with  little  effort,  with  a  high 
degree  of  uniformity  as  to  time  and  accuracy,  and  with 
but  little  direct  attention.  Many  of  the  recruits, 
whether  volunteers  or  drafted  men,  are  highly  intelli- 
gent; some  have  already  acquired  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  efficiency  along  particular  lines  of  social  serv- 
ice or  in  certain  other  vocations,  while  others  have 
no  special  training  but  have  been  general  laborers. 
There  are  a  few  who  are  not  very  adaptable,  who  have, 
generally  speaking,  poor  ability.  These  men  differ 
also  in  the  spirit  they  represent.  Many  of  the  drafted 
men,  unfortunately,  have  not  had  the  education  and  the 
associations  to  give  them  highly  intelligent  and  co-opera- 
tive views  of  their  new  duties;  they  are  rather  negative, 
or  at  least  passive. 

With  this  heterogeneity  of  material  for  training,  the 
officer — non-commissioned  as  well  as  commissioned — has 
no  small  task.  These  men  cannot  all  be  trained  by  the 
same  method  without  great  waste,  and,  what  is  even  more 
important,  grave  danger  of  almost  disgusting  the  more  in- 
telligent men  and,  possibly,  of  arousing  their  opposition. 
The  interest  of  the  most  apt  student  must  not  be  lost  in 
the  care  of  the  stupid  one.  The  better  men  do  not 
need  the  amount  of  repetition  of  instruction  and 
drill  required  by  the  backward  few.  Instruction 
must  be  individualized  as  far  as  possible.  This  is 
inevitable,  especially  when  men  are  taken  as  late  in  life 
as  are  the  recruits  and  from  so  various  stations  and  voca- 
tions. Each  subordinate  officer  must  have  a  large  de- 
gree of  freedom  for  the  use  of  his  own  judgment  and 
methods  so  that  he  can  particularize  in  training  wherever 
this  is  needed. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  101 

Some  of  the  men  are  whole-heartedly  in  the  work, 
and  will  get  the  general  situation  and  the  requirements 
in  mind  relatively  easily  and  can  therefore,  with  but  lit- 
tle intelligent  direction,  train  themselves  on  some  of  the 
more  difficult  technicalities.  In  such  cases  frequent,  per- 
tinent, short  criticisms  and  further  suggestions  are  of 
vital  importance  and  require  but  little  time  from  the  offi- 
cer in  charge  of  the  immediate  unit  (squad,  platoon, 
company,  etc.). 

Other  men  must  have  a  great  deal  of  attention  rather 
continuously  from  the  first,  or  they  will  fall  into  bad 
habits  to  get  away  from  which  will  require  a  great  deal 
of  time  and  effort  later.  In  training  students  on  ball 
tossing  for  a  learning  experiment,  the  writer  found  that 
some  girls,  who  were  very  poor  at  the  exercise  when  not 
carefully  watched  and  aided  at  first,  fell  into  certain  con- 
fusing habits  which  later  made  progress  practically  im- 
possible to  them  (Jour.  Exper.  Psychol.,  1917,  2,  page 
197).  A  start  in  the  wrong  direction  is  to  be  avoided  as 
later  changes  in  habits  are  possibly  even  more  difficult  to 
effect  than  to  start  from  the  beginning.  The  accuracy  of 
these  statements  depends,  of  course,  on  the  nature  of  the 
specific  act  to  be  acquired  and  on  the  adaptability  of  the 
learner.  Often,  moreover,  a  backward  individual  can 
gain  most  by  the  observation  of  others  in  practice  after 
he  has  himself  tried  the  exercise.  Showing  how  is  often 
much  better  than  telling  how,  especially  when  there  are 
a  number  of  difficulties  in  the  act. 

The  great  principle  underlying  all  this  is  to  distribute 
attention  and  effort  where  these  are  needed.  Great  in- 
dividual differences  are  found  among  men  even  when 
they  are  chosen  from  equal  stations  in  life,  and  to  train 
all  alike  is  an  inexcusable  waste.  It  is  a  helpful  practice 
for  each  officer  to  have  some  sort  of  list  or  record  of  all 
the  essential  things  that  the  new  recruits  must  learn  to 
do  under  his  own  direction,  and  to  keep  this  record  con- 
stantly at  hand  for  reference.  Each  man  can  be  checked 


102  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

oft"  on  such  items  as  he  can  do  passingly  well,  and  can 
be  assigned  special  drills  by  himself  on  those  points  on 
which  he  is  weak.  Then  the  more  formal  drills  in  which 
all  take  part  will  tend  to  weave  together  the  various  ele- 
ments of  the  movements  and  acts,  taken  up  by  the  selec- 
tive method  already  explained.  Thus  by  encouragnig  and 
requiring  individual  drills,  and  by  giving  individual  at- 
tention to  specially  weak  points,  the  leader  will  find  that 
the  general  drills  will  come  along  much  better. 

The  officer  will  by  this  means  have  a  more  detailed 
and  adequate  knowledge  of  each  man,  of  his  general  view 
and  the  degree  of  his  willingness  to  co-operate,  and  of  the 
extent  of  his  confidence  in  himself  to  get  hold  of  the  sit- 
uation quickly ;  he  can  therefore  encourage  and  stimulate 
individuals  where  this  is  necessary,  even  by  the  use  of 
various  rivalry  and  ambition  motives,  and  can  more  effec- 
tively offer  specific  criticisms  and  show  a  detailed  knowl- 
edge of  the  entire  procedure  and  of  each  man.  Such 
knowledge  and  individual  attention  cannot  but  inspire 
respect  and  in  time  enthusiasm  in  the  men.  No  private, 
when  such  individual  drill  and  criticism  are  attended  to  by 
the  leader,  can  have  anything  like  the  knowledge  of  the 
other  men  and  of  their  difficulties  that  the  leader  has, 
whereas  a  keen  individual  can  easily  rival  the  officer  in 
this  regard  if  all  practice  goes  on  in  general  and  in  group 
formation  alone.  Moreover,  by  such  distributed  and 
selective  practice  the  officer  himself  increases  greatly  his 
own  opportunity  of  progressing.  He  gets  more  and  more 
insight  into  the  real  psychology  of  learning,  and  specific 
problems  arise  in  his  mind  which  can  be  worked  out  in 
special  study  and  planning  periods.  These  opportunities 
tend  to  keep  him  well  in  advance  of  his  best  men  by  the 
stimulus  of  the  special  problems  he  meets  and  they  cen- 
ter his  attention  on  the  pertinent  points  of  the  learning 
and  force  him  constantly  to  refer  back  to  various  chap- 
ters of  this  and  other  manuals  and  references  for  sug- 
gestions toward  the  solution  of  his  problems.  That  is 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  103 

to  say,  he  has  real  motives  for  his  own  progress  and  ad- 
vancement, far  beyond  those  afforded  by  a  non-selective 
method  of  training.  He  also  saves  days  and  even  weeks 
in  the  training  of  each  group  of  new  recruits,  because  the 
whole  group  is  not  held  back  by  the  special  difficulties 
of  the  individual  men. 

The  benefits  to  the  country  in  a  crisis  are  tremendous. 
As  a  consequence  of  emphasis  on  special  drills  more  at- 
tention can  be  given  in  the  general  drills  to  the  larger 
relationships  of  the  several  acts  and  movements,  to  the 
actual  work  of  fighting.  Thus  the  acts  can  become  more 
nearly  automatically  established  and  more  firmly  asso- 
ciated with  the  co-operative  procedure  among  the  dif- 
ferent units  of  an  entire  division  operating  under  imag- 
ined fighting  conditions.  The  result  will  be  that  when  the 
men  get  into  real  action  against  the  enemy  their  timidity 
and  fear,  and  other  emotional  disturbances,  will  be  un- 
der better  control  by  virtue  of  their  being  more  at  home 
with  the  weapons  of  war ;  there  will  therefore  be  greater 
confidence  and  less  necessity  for  thought  about  the 
methods  of  procedure.  Such  greater  freedom  from  the 
necessity  of  extreme  attention  to  individual  defects  in 
the  general  drills  will  afford  better  opportunity  for  the 
leader  to  help  the  men  imagine  real  conflicts,  to  picture 
to  themselves  surprise  attacks,  dispersing  of  the  foe  and 
the  pursuance  of  them  to  complete  victory.  These  vari- 
ous acts  must  be  learned  as  far  as  possible  in  the  rela- 
tionships they  are  to  have  in  a  real  struggle.  Final  train- 
ing in  them  should  of  course  be  received  in  close  con- 
tact with  actual  fighting,  or  training  in  the  control  of  the 
emotions  will  be  inadequate. 

Responsibility  of  training  in  all  the  duties  and  func- 
tions of  warfare,  then,  rests  on  every  officer  from  the 
corporal  up.  Each  officer  should  hold  his  next  subordin-  v 
ate  responsible,  and  in  normal  cases  deal  only  with  him, 
for  all  details  of  training  and  of  preparation  in  his  own 
unit.  It  is  only  by  this  means  that  a  proper  sense  of  real 


104  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

manhood  and  of  responsibility  arises  in  each  officer  and 
private,  and  that  a  proper  perspective  results  of  the  rela- 
tion of  each  unit  to  the  entire  division,  army,  and  nation. 
Co-operation  and  intense  individual  effort  are  the  key- 
notes to  success,  and  only  by  this  means  of  individual  re- 
sponsibility reaching  clear  down  to  the  private,  respect- 
ing his  own  acts  and  duties,  can  the  proper  motive  for  co- 
operation and  intense  individual  effort  be  attained. 

in 

The  point  of  prime  importance  for  the  officer  to  bear 
in  mind  when  training  his  men  is  that  interest  must  be 
aroused.  In  the  foregoing  chapters  various  suggestions 
have  been  made  as  to  how  this  is  accomplished, — appeals 
as  directly  as  possible  to  instincts  and  natural  predisposi- 
tions, the  development  of  personal  interest  in  the  group 
and  pride  in  its  good  name,  and  so  on. 

The  rules,  regulations  and  customs  of  military  life 
which  confront  the  new  recruit  can  be  much  more  quickly 
learned  than  otherwise  and  the  newly  initiated  will  go 
at  his  task  of  learning  them  with  keener  interest,  if  it  is 
made  clear  to  him  what  they  mean.  This  is  emphasized 
strongly  by  Major  Geo.  Bell,  Jr.,  in  the  following  illus- 
tration: "Great  influence  can  be  had  over  men  if  there 
be  explained  to  them  the  logical  reason  for  certain  prac- 
tices. The  origin  of  the  salute  should  be  explained  to 
them  and  such  an  explanation  will  go  far  to  remove  the 
idea  there  is  anything  menial  or  subserviant  in  render- 
ing military  courtesy.  In  the  middle  ages  knights  were 
clad  in  armour  and  the  head  covered  with  a  helmet,  the 
visor  of  which  was  kept  closed.  When  one  knight  met 
another  the  only  way  in  which  one  could  recognize  the 
other  as  a  brother  in  arms  was  by  raising  the  visor.  The 
practice  was  soon  established  of  the  junior  raising  the 
visor  first,  whereupon  the  senior  returned  the  salutation. 
The  salute  today  is  relatively  the  same  practice.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  men  in  military  or  naval  service  are  much 
more  polite  than  civilians  because  no  military  or  naval 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  105 

man  meets  another  man  without  greeting  him  as  a  brother 
in  arms  by  means  of  the  salute,  the  junior  rendering  the 
salute  first."  (Op  cit.) 

In  general  the  instructor  or  officer  will  always  do  well 
to  emphasize  the  significance  of  things  to  be  learned. 
This  gives  perspective  and  interest  to  ..otherwise  unre- 
lated and  dry  facts;  it  enables  the  learner  to  group  and 
to  organize  the  things  he  is  to  retain  so  that  his  memory 
for  them  is  far  better  than  otherwise,  and  it  develops  a 
more  active  co-operative  attitude,  a  "will  to  learn."  This 
attitude  is  necessary  for  the  best  improvement  as  well  as 
to  replace  passivity  with  snap  and  vigor  in  one's  work. 
Moreover,  mere  details  learned  out  of  their  practical  re- 
lations are  far  less  serviceable  than  facts  learned  in  the 
true  relationships  they  bear  to  our  actions,  that  is,  than 
facts  learned  in  the  relations  in  which  they  are  to  be  used 
later.  By  thus  emphasizing  the  significance  and  use  of 
things,  giving  them  perspective  and  meaning,  one  finds 
a  more  logical  reason  for  drills;  they  are  to  train  the 
person  up  on  small  points  of  technique  which  when  im- 
perfectly learned  interfere  with  the  larger  practical  ac- 
tivities. It  is  evident  that  in  drills  this  necessity  must 
never  be  lost  sight  of  if  interest  and  effort  are  to  be  at 
their  best.  Every  little  detail  of  drill  and  of  training 
generally  becomes  by  this  means  part  of  a  vigorous,  alert 
and  interesting  life  to  the  soldier. 

It  is  important  to  note  also  that  extensive  use  of  illus- 
trations of  various  kinds  adds  to  clearness  and  life,  and 
makes  misunderstandings  less  apt  to  occur  than  other- 
wise. In  this  matter,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  caution 
the  young  instructor  against  losing  sight  of  the  principle 
in  the  illustration  so  that  the  instruction  degenerates  into 
mere  entertainment.  Illustrations  are  in  many  respects 
very  helpful,  provided  the  principle  illustrated  is  kept 
clearly  in  mind  and  is  frequently  pointed  out. 

Individual  differences  are  never  to  be  forgotten.  The 
director  who  falls  into  a  mere  routine  not  only  runs  great 


106  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

risks  of  losing  the  interest  of  his  men  but  also  of  losing 
sight  of  real  live  problems  of  training.  He  is  thus  in 
danger  of  "wearing  out"  with  the  men  and  of  being  ex- 
celled by  the  most  energetic  of  them.  In  many  respects 
every  person  has  his  own  peculiarities  in  learning,  and  if 
his  difficulties  are  sufficient  to  warrant  it  he  should  re- 
ceive individual  attention  by  some  of  the  means  that  have 
been  suggested  and  by  other  means  that  the  officer  can 
develop  for  himself.  As  far  as  possible  learning  should 
be  brought  about  by  emphasizing  in  different  ways  the 
most  successful  of  the  learner's  efforts  and  the  unsuccess- 
ful trials  will  gradually  be  eliminated  by  neglect.  Too 
much  attention  to  errors  rather  than  to  the  successful 
efforts  is  not  only  liable  to  put  a  damper  on  the  enthu- 
siasm but  it  also,  in  certain  cases  at  least,  tends  to  fix  the 
wrong  movements.  The  asking  of  questions  on  necessary 
matters  by  the  soldiers  and  the  stimulation  of  individual 
initiative  is  worth  encouraging  as  far  as  possible  under 
the  conditions,  and  it  is  gratifying  to  note  that  this  is  be- 
ing done  to  a  large  extent  in  the  training  camps. 

It  appears  from  our  investigations  that  there  is  at 
present  in  the  training  camps  a  rather  encouraging  recog- 
nition of  the  value  of  individualizing  training;  officers 
seem  to  encourage  the  learner  to  ask  questions  about  mat- 
ters not  clear  to  himself  and  to  get  assistance  on  special 
difficulties.  These  methods,  with  frequent  tests  and  exact 
grading  of  results,  assure  the  best  progress,  and  they 
correct  errors  early  before  they  become  important  obsta- 
cles ;  they  also  insure  vigorous  effort  resulting  from  active 
attention  and  interest.  A  few  quotations  of  statements 
by  officers  actively  employed  in  the  training  of  soldiers 
will  serve  as  illustrations  of  the  best  practices  regarding 
individualization  in  training  and  the  recognition  of  in- 
dividual initiative  coupled  with  strict  responsibility  for 
results. 

"When  recruits  are  received,  they  are  usually  put  in 
the  charge  of  a  competent  instructor,  a  man  who  has  dem- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  107 

onstrated  his  fitness  not  only  by  his  knowledge,  but  by  his 
patience  and  method  of  instruction.  As  the  men  become 
proficient  in  their  duties,  they  are  transferred  to  the 
company  for  drill  purposes  and  for  further  instruction, 
and  those  men  who  show  a  slowness  are  either  put  under 
a  separate  drill  master  or  given  more  instruction  by  the 
one  who  first  had  charge.  It  is  desired  as  far  as  possible 
to  take  a  squad  forward  and  transfer  it  as  a  whole  to  the 
company,  where  it  is  absorbed  by  various  men  being 
scattered  among  the  older  ones. 

"The  captain  is  responsible  for  results  in  his  organi- 
zation, and  it  is  desirable  that  the  instruction  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  company  by  subordinate  officers  be  along 
the  lines  laid  down  by  the  company  commander.  Where 
concerted  action  is  not  desired  there  can  be  no  objection 
to  giving  officers  or  non-commissioned  officers,  who  are 
given  work  to  do,  [the  liberty]  to  use  their  own  judg- 
ment and  initiative.  When  I  tell  a  sergeant  to  take  a 
squad  and  clear  a  certain  piece  of  ground,  or  to  take  his 
detachment  to  a  certain  place  at  a  certain  time,  I  do  not 
give  him  minute  detail  as  to  how  he  shall  accomplish  it. 
I  expect  him  to  accomplish  the  purpose  using  his  own 
initiative  and  judgment." 

"No  two  men  can  be  treated  alike.  Take  a  squad  of 
recruits,  you  can  teach  them  the  school  of  the  squad, 
and  the  manual  of  arms  in  the  squad  as  a  whole,  but 
each  will  have  his  minor  faults,  which  will  take  individual 
instructions  and  many  times  worlds  of  patience.  For 
one  will  insist  on  holding  his  gun  in  a  certain  position,  or 
grasping  the  rifle  in  the  wrong  place,  or  stepping  off  on 
the  right  foot,  or  many  other  little  things  that  he  should 
not  do,  and  it  is  mostly  in  drilling  the  recruits  that  an 
officer  makes  or  breaks  himself  in  the  soldiers'  viewpoint, 
for  the  first  impression  is  always  the  strongest  impres- 
sion. 

"The  platoon  is  the  smallest  unit  that  an  officer  com- 
mands, and  he  is  held  responsible  for  every  detail  of  that 


108  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

platoon.  Its  drill,  physical  exercises,  athletic  contest, 
manual  of  arms,  military  bearing,  soldiering  and  cleanli- 
ness." 

"Give  him  full  latitude  and  require  results." 
"Individual  treatment  is  to  be  encouraged.     Seem- 
ingly backward  recruits  often  come  to  the  front  amaz- 
ingly, if  given  a  little  extra  attention." 

"No  doubt  the  matter  varies  greatly  with  different 
regiments.  It  is  hard  to  answer  this  question  [regard- 
ing freedom  of  initiative,  etc.].  However,  a  company 
commander  has  a  great  deal  of  latitude  in  training  his 
organization,  and  he  is  held  strictly  responsible  for  re- 
sults. I  have  observed  that  with  the  great  majority  of 
officers,  the  more  initiative  they  are  given  the  better; 
with  some,  of  course,  liberty  becomes  license." 

"A  great  help  in  instruction,  especially  of  recruits, 
is  mentally  putting  one's  self  in  the  other  man's  place. 
If  he  is  having  trouble  with  some  movement  or  position, 
think  what  your  difficulties  were  in  mastering  the  same 
thing.  Usually  this  will  turn  up  some  little  points  which 
will  prove  of  material  assistance.  Some  men  don't  try  to 
learn  and  some  method  must  be  found  of  waking  them 
up  to  a  sense  of  their  duty  and  possibilities.  This  can 
usually  be  done  by  an  appeal  to  their  spirit  of  competi- 
tion. Make  such  a  man  feel  that  his  'bunkie'  has  no 
more  ability  than  he  but  is  making  far  faster  progress. 
Have  his  corporal  talk  to  him.  It  will  often  do  more 
good  than  a  talk  from  an  officer*" 

"The  methods  of  training  in  a  company  are  largely 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  company  commander  who  is 
held  responsible  for  the  training  of  his  men.  He  is  sel- 
dom dictated  to  regarding  this  but  is  left  to  his  own  de- 
vices. If  the  company  fails  to  develop  properly,  he  is 
relieved  and  another  officer  is  appointed  who  can  get  re- 
sults. To  my  mind,  this  is  proper.  If  a  company  fails 
to  qualify  at  something  or  other,  the  reflection  falls  where 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEARNING  109 

it  belongs,  on  the  company  commander  who  is  responsi- 
ble." 

In  modern  warfare  many  forms  of  specialized  train- 
ing are  necessary,  which  cannot  be  entered  into  here. 
Various  kinds  of  special  and  intensive  training  are  con- 
sidered in  Major  F.  R.  McCoy's  Principles  of  Military 
Training  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  but  the  gen- 
eral principles  here  emphasized  do  not  lose  their  import- 
ance even  in  such  training.  A  rather  humorous  reference 
to  the  changes  brought  about  by  modern  methods  is  found 
in  the  quotation  by  this  writer  from  Major  Kemp,  as 
follows : 

"I  was  once,  only  a  few  months  ago,  commander  of  a 
company  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  disciplined  soldiers. 
I  still  nominally  command  that  company,  but  they  have 
developed  into  a  heterogeneous  mob  of  specialists.  If 
I  detail  one  of  my  subalterns  to  do  a  job  of  work,  he  re- 
minds me  that  he  is  a  bomb  expert,  or  a  professor  of 
sandbagging,  or  director  of  the  knuckle-duster  section,  or 
Lord  High  Thrower  of  Stinck  Pots,  and  has  no  time  to 
play  about  with  such  a  common  thing  as  a  platoon.  As 
for  the  men,  they  simply  laugh  in  the  sergeant  major's 
face.  They  are  'experts/  if  you  please,  and  are  struck 
off  all  fatigues  and  company  duty.  It  was  bad  enough 
when  Ayling  pinched  fourteen  of  my  best  men  for  his 
filthy  machine  guns ;  now,  the  company  has  degenerated 
into  an  academy  of  variety  artists.  The  only  occasion 
upon  which  I  ever  see  them  all  together  is  pay  day!" 
(Page  207). 


CHAPTER  VII 

HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE 
i 

General  Sherman  said:  "Discipline  is  the  soul  of 
armies,"  and  Lieut.  Col.  Lincoln  Andrews,  in  his  work 
on  the  Fundamentals  of  Military  Service  says :  "Disci- 
pline is  as  vital  to  the  success  of  an  army  as  live  steam  to 
the  operation  of  a  locomotive."  "Discipline,"  he  adds, 
;may  be  defined  as  that  psychic  something  which  is  always 
recognized  by  its  manifestations  of  ever  present  respect 
for  superiors,  and  instant  cheerful  obedience,  not  only 
to  orders  given,  but  to  a  high  personal  sense  of  duty." 

There  has  been  more  written  and  said  about  disci- 
pline than  about  any  other  subject  pertaining  to  mili- 
tary science.  It  is  known  by  many  names  and  has  been 
defined  in  various  ways,  but  there  is  one  point  on  which 
all  military  men  agree,  and  that  is  that  discipline  repre-  I/' 
sents  about  seventy-five  per  cent  of  battle  efficiency. 
Some  military  leaders  contend  that  discipline  is  cold  and 
mechanical,  a  condition  to  be  found  only  in  seasoned 
veterans,  an  automatic  habit  of  obeying  commands. 
Other  leaders  like  General  Sherman,  have  attributed  spirit 
and  life  to  discipline,  saying  that  it  is  an  actuating  spirit 
that  makes  the  soldier  subordinate  his  own  will  and  de- 
sires to  those  of  the  leader.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  ideal 
discipline,  the  discipline  exhibited  by  some  of  the  armies 
on  the  west  European  front,  is  a  condition  of  the  sol- 
dier that  causes  him  to  obey  commands  unconditionally 
and  almost  automatically  as  a  result  of  habits  secured  by 
thorough  training,  plus  a  desire  to  obey,  which  has  de- 

1)0 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  111 

veloped  from  within  as  a  result  of  good  fellowship,  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  teamplay  and  a  spirit  of  loyalty 
to  his  country.  The  two  essential  elements  are  habit  and 
spirit.  This  is  the  type  of  discipline  that  the  officer  should 
develop  in  his  company. 

It  was  some  time  before  I  came  to  a  full  realization 
of  the  extreme  importance  of  habit  formation  in  develop- 
ing discipline.  I  had  associated  discipline  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent with  merely  a  willingness  to  follow  the  leader,  to  obey 
the  commands  of  the  officer.  But  from  conversations  I 
have  had  with  British  and  French  officers  recently  over 
from  Europe*  I  found  that  under  battle  conditions  when 
on  the  verge  of  making  a  charge,  the  will  power  of  the 
soldier,  especially  in  his  first  battle,  is  likely  to  desert  him, 
but  if  his  habits  are  thoroughly  established  he  begins 
to  act  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance.  He  feels  a  rifle 
in  his  hands ;  for  months  he  has  been  trained  to  run  for- 
ward and  engage  an  opponent  with  his  bayonet,  and  as  it 
is  the  most  natural  thing  to  do,  he  responds  to  the  call  of 
habit. 

The  effect  habit  has  on  discipline  is  seen  on  the  foot- 
ball field,  the  baseball  diamond  and  the  basketball  floor. 
It  takes  months  of  intensive  training  to  develop  a  well 
disciplined  football  team.  When  the  ball  is  snapped  back 
from  center,  the  right  half-back  is  off  in  the  interfer- 
ence ;  and  he  does  not  stop  to  figure  out  what  he  should 
do,  but  smashes  into  the  opposing  end,  blocking  him  effec- 
tively, because  this  is  what  he  has  been  trained  to  do. 
Watch  the  baseball  team  practicing ;  the  coach  is  knock- 
ing down  grounders  for  the  infield.  First  the  third  base- 
man stops  a  ball,  swings  his  right  arm  and  the  ball  is 
shooting  down  to  first.  Then  the  short  stop  picks  up  a 
low  one  and  sends  it  over  to  first  base.  This  seems 
wasted  effort,  but  in  a  match  game  all  this  practice 
counts,  inasmuch  as  the  short  stop  and  the  third  baseman 
must  have  the  habit  of  throwing  down  to  first.  The  spec- 
tator at  the  game  marvels  at  the  speed  with  which  the 


112  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

players  manage  to  get  the  ball  to  first,  in  time  to  cut  off 
the  runner.  It  is  merely  the  result  of  constant  practice. 
Every  world's  series  has  brought  forth  brilliant  and  in- 
tricate plays  which  were  executed  mechanically  in  much 
shorter  time  than  the  players  could  possibly  have  thought 
them  out. 

If  the  great  importance  of  habit  formation  can  be 
impressed  on  our  recruits  in  the  army,  I  am  sure  it  will 
result  in  increasing  efficiency  of  the  men.  The  American 
is  so  constituted  that  once  you  get  him  into  an  occupation 
he  is  not  satisfied  until  he  excels  all  others  in  that  particu- 
lar line,  and  if  he  realizes  that  by  practicing  on  saluting 
ten  minutes  every  day  he  will  develop  a  fine  snappy,  mili- 
tary salute,  you  will  find  him  exercising  his  right  arm 
daily.  So  with  his  other  necessary  habits. 

In  regard  to  the  other  side  of  discipline,  it  should  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  soldier's  spirit  depends  partly  on 
himself  and  partly  on  his  environment  and  the  circum- 
stances surrounding  him  while  in  training.  Some  offi- 
cers can  develop  the  right  kind  of  discipline  and  fight- 
ing spirit  in  any  company  of  soldiers,  and  it  is  quite  evi- 
dent that  the  discipline  of  every  company  is  greatly  de- 
pendent on  its  officers.  In  the  foregoing  chapters  we 
have  considered  ways  and  means  of  interesting  the  re- 
cruits in  their  work  and  ways  of  appealing  to  them.  All 
these  factors — competition,  play,  teamplay,  and  leader- 
ship— enter  into  the  development  of  the  ideal  kind  of  dis- 
cipline. We  must  not  have  the  German  type  of  disci- 
pline based  on  servility,  fear,  and  blind  allegiance,  but 
by  means  of  intelligent  instruction  we  must  develop  an 
attitude  in  the  soldier  which  will  manifest  itself  in  an 
intense  desire  to  do  his  best  and  to  co-operate  with  his 
fellows  for  the  common  cause. 

ii 

In  the  previous  chapter  we  have  considered  the 
method  by  which  habits  are  formed.  To  learn  is  the  same 
thing  as  to  form  habits.  We  have  noted  that  when 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  113 

the  elements  of  an  act  are  new,  so  that  control  is  im- 
possible, a  great  number  of  random  and  apparently  irrele- 
vant movements  are  brought  out  by  the  situation  to  which 
the  individual  is  attempting  to  respond;  that  intelligent 
practice  gradually  selects  and  emphasizes  to  final  pre- 
dominance the  successful  movements,  so  that  finally  the 
stimulus  calls  out  only  these  movements.  In  the  case 
of  such  new  acts  a  person  does  not  profit  much  by  seeing 
others  do  the  act,  or  even  by  being  told  how  to  do  it. 
Such  a  case  would  be  learning  to  skate,  or  to  write  with 
the  left  hand  by  seeing  one's  movements  only  in  the  mir- 
ror, not  directly.  Try  this !  In  such  cases  the  only 
fruitful  procedure  is  to  keep  trying  in  a  general  way  to 
do  the  thing  required  and  to  repeat  of  all  the  acts 
brought  about  only  those  that  are  successful,  that  do  what 
we  want  done.  In  such  learning,  about  all  that  a  trainer 
can  do  is  to  make  as  clear  as  possible  to  the  learner  what 
is  to  be  done,  to  encourage  continued  efforts,  and  to  help 
the  learner  take  note  of  and  try  to  reproduce  those  acts 
only  that  are  most  successful.  The  learner  must  find 
out  for  himself  how  it  feels  to  perform  the  acts  that 
bring  success.  In  such  cases  it  is  better  to  reserve  speci- 
fic instructions  until  they  will  mean  something  more  defi- 
nitely to  the  learner.  One  cannot  think  in  detail  how  an 
act  is  to  be  done  that  one  cannot  do.  The  new  recruit  has, 
fortunately,  very  few  such  new  acts  to  learn. 

Acts  of  what  we  called  Class  II  have  practically  no 
new  or  uncontrolled  elements.  We  know  how  each  act 
feels  in  the  doing  but  must  get  co-ordination  of  several 
such  elements.  These  concern  us  more  directly ;  they  in- 
clude most  of  the  acts  the  soldier  must  learn.  Learning 
to  handle  the  instruments  of  war  and  to  make  all  the  t 
movements  taught  in  the  drills,  etc.  are  examples.  Such 
acts  and  movements  can  be  performed  in  a  general  way, 
slowly  and  imperfectly  it  is  true,  when  the  recruit  is  told 
how  to  perform  them  or  shown  hoiv  by  seeing  someone 
else  go  through  the  movements.  Without  a  good  deal  of 


114  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

practice,  however,  they  are  performed  with  considerable 
awkwardness,  unsteadiness  and  variation;  great  effort  is 
also  required,  bringing  about  fatigue  in  a  short  time. 
These  conditions  must  all  be  improved.  They  indicate 
that  the  nerve  impulses  spread  a  good  deal  into  channels 
which  are  unnecessary  for  the  skilled  performance  of  the 
acts  desired.  The  result  is  a  conflict  between  various 
irrelevant  acts,  and  consequent  waste  of  energy.  This 
indicates,  of  course,  that  our  division  of  acts  into  two 
classes  is  somewhat  arbitrary  and  that  the  line  cannot  be 
closely  drawn.  One  simply  cannot  perform  acts  of 
Class  II  the  first  time  just  as  they  should  be  done. 

A  good  example  to  work  on  is  this,  which  can  be 
practiced  at  the  reader's  own  leisure:  Rotate  the  right 
hand  forward  and  the  left  backward  at  the  same  time. 
Practice  till  the  act  is  learned,  and  note  how  it  is 
learned.  These  general  points  may  be  helpful:  Start 
the  right  hand  going  alone  and  keep  this  up  till  it  runs 
somewhat  automatically.  Now  keep  it  going  in  this  man- 
ner, letting  it  take  care  of  itself,  while  you  start  out  the 
left  hand  slowly.  Keep  your  whole  attention  on  the  left 
hand.  Stop  whenever  you  get  confused  and  get  a  right 
start  again  as  you  did  the  first  time.  As  you  progress  the 
attention  can  be  directed  to  one  imperfection  after  another 
till  the  performance  goes  smoothly  and  automatically. 
It  will  be  well  to  try  this  exercise  carefully  and  to  note 
the  various  stages  of  the  learning,  then  by  keeping  it  in 
mind  the  following  discussion  will  have  more  significance. 

On  acts  that  can  be  done  by  seeing  others  do  them — 
popularly  termed  imitation — much  time  can  be  saved,  as 
has  been  said  already,  by  showing  the  new  recruit  how. 
Attention  should  be  centered  now  on  one  and  now  on 
another  detail,  not  isolating  each  act  too  much,  however, 
from  its  relations  to  others  with  which  it  is  to  be  per- 
formed. But  only  the  easiest  acts  and  movements  can 
profitably  be  taught  by  this  means  to  groups.  There  are 
always  some  men  who  will  be  awkward  and  who  will 


HABIt  AND  DISCIPLINE  US 

need  a  great  deal  of  extra  attention,  each  according  to  his 
own  needs.  These  men  must  not  be  allowed  to  take  the 
valuable  time  of  the  whole  group.  Under  the  present 
condition  of  recruiting  the  national  army  the  West  Point 
method  of  sink  or  swim  cannot  be  applied  too  drasti- 
cally, though  with  certain  applications  it  may  bring  out 
the  right  kind  of  qualities.  Under  the  conditions  of  the 
draft  individualization  of  instructions  should  play  a  large 
part  and  much  time  can  thus  be  gained.  Some  men  can 
advance  much  more  rapidly  than  others,  and  wherever 
possible  provisions  made  for  such  advancement  will  be 
beneficial,  and  much  time  and  effort  saved.  One  instruc- 
tor can  quickly  determine  which  aspects  of  training  each 
of  the  men  immediately  under  his  instruction  require. 
He  can  then  set  each  man  at  work  vigorously,  when  op- 
portunities for  such  individual  work  come,  going  about 
correcting  each  individual  specifically  on  his  weak  points 
and  helping  him  when  necessary  to  get  the  correct  move- 
ments and  ideas.  Where  great  difficulty  is  experienced, 
the  arm  or  leg  may  be  directed  into  the  proper  position 
and  movement.  In  such  put-through  training  movements, 
however,  the  gain  is  not  great  unless  the  attention  of 
the  learner  is  on  the  act  and  the  moving  member.  He 
must  find  how  it  feels  to  do  the  act  in  the  right  manner. 
It  is  better  for  the  instructor  in  cases  of  special  difficulty 
merely  to  guide  the  movements  actually  initiated  and 
willed  by  the  learner  than  to  make  the  movements  for 
him  by  the  application  of  outside  force,  for  the  correct 
sensations  of  the  movement  can  best  come  only  when  the 
learner  is  himself  producing  the  act  in  its  general  feat- 
ures. The  instructor  should  interfere  with  the  willed  act 
only  in  those  aspects  needing  such  help,  the  aim  being  to 
leave  off  such  guidance  as  soon  as  it  can  be  dispensed 
with.  The  learner  must  learn  by  his  own  effort,  but  the 
instructor  should  be  critical  and  careful  not  to  let  an  act 
pass  and  become  mechanically  established  until  it  is  ac- 
tually performed  satisfactorily.  Good  criticism  can  thus 


116  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

be  done  only  individually  on  all  the  harder  and  more  tech- 
nical points  giving  special  trouble  in  various  ways  to  dif- 
ferent persons.  Group  drill  will  take  care  of  the  required 
uniformities  necessary  for  common  action  and  co-opera- 
tive movements,  and  must,  of  course,  utilize  the  acts 
learned  in  special  individual  drills  and  give  them  their 
setting  in  the  entire  group  operations. 

The  showing-how  stage  soon  passes  into  the  com- 
manding-to-do stage.  One  soon  learns  to  do  the  act 
merely  on  being  told  or  directed  to  do  it  in  connection 
with  the  larger  setting  in  which  it  occurs.  But  even  at 
this  state  it  is  too  conscious  and  uncertain  to  be  safely  re- 
lied on.  It  must  be  done  over  and  over  in  various  rela- 
tions, the  attention  being  gradually  directed  away  from 
the  act  itself  to  the  circumstances  requiring  its  perform- 
ance, just  as  we  all  learned  finally  to  walk  or  to  skate  by 
just  thinking  of  the  place  that  we  desired  to  go  to  and 
only  being  vaguely  conscious  of  the  specific  acts  en  masse. 
One  who  has  learned  to  write  has  only  to  think  of  the 
thought  that  he  wants  recorded  with  a  general  awareness 
of  where  it  is  to  be  recorded,  of  the  contact  with  the  pen 
used,  etc.  The  detailed  acts  are  no  longer  attended  to. 
The  person  who  has  learned  to  walk  merely  thinks  of  a 
desired  object  in  another  room,  gets  some  fleety  images  of 
the  surroundings,  the  general  direction,  and  so  on,  and  the 
neuro-muscular  mechanism  takes  care  of  the  rest.  This 
must  be  the  outcome  also  of  the  soldier's  training;  his 
detailed  acts  must  learn  largely  to  take  care  of  themselves 
properly,  and  the  change  is  a  gradual  one  from  the  more 
painstaking  methods  of  setting  them  agoing  from  their 
first  clumsy  movements  partly  directed,  it  may  be,  by 
outside  force,  to  the  perfect  automaticity  of  fully  prac- 
ticed acts.  In  the  final  stage  the  act  is  set  off  indirectly, 
that  is  to  say,  only  by  attention  to  the  related  circum- 
stances demanding  it. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  moreover,  that  even  when 
acts  can  be  performed  easily  in  this  final  stage,  they  read- 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  117 

ily  relapse  into  earlier  imperfect  stages,  or  into  actual 
confusion,  when  one  is  thrown  into  unusual  circumstances, 
excitement,  or  when  important  changes  in  attention  are 
brought  about.  Try  this  on  the  arm  rotation  exercise 
suggested.  Who  has  not  noted  that  the  centering  of  at- 
tention on  one's  steps  on  ascending  a  stairway  interferes 
with  the  otherwise  mechanical  perfection  of  the  move- 
ments ?  Any  habits  that  are  really  important  must  be 
thoroughly  ground  into  one's  nerves  before  they  can 
be  left  to  run  themselves.  But  all  drills  should  avoid 
mere  mechanical  operation;  they  should  have  purpose 
and  meaning,  and  attention  should  be  directed  gradually 
away  from  the  detailed  aspects  of  the  acts  to  their  larger 
significance,  to  the  situation  requiring  them.  Defense 
or  attack  activities,  for  example,  are  far  more  fruitful, 
so  far  as  training  for  real  service  is  concerned,  if  the 
men  are  led  to  imagine  the  enemy,  in  all  its  maneuvers, 
rather  than  if  they  go  through  the  drills  mechanically. 
The  important  point  is  that  finally  all  the  various  move- 
ments of  the  drill  must  come  to  fit  significantly  into  a 
functional  system. 

An  interesting  experiment  will  illustrate  the  fact  that 
frequency  of  performance  of  an  act  in  the  general  situa- 
tion in  which  it  is  to  be  used  is  necessary  for  rapidity  and 
ease  in  its  operation.  Time  yourself  on  reading  these 
words ;  go  through  them  as  rapidly  as  possible,  speaking 
each  aloud. 

circle  star  square  cross  triangle  star  circle  square  tri- 
angle star  cross  square  cross  star  triangle  cross  circle 
star  triangle  circle  square  circle  star  circle  square  star 
square  cross  triangle  square  circle  square  star  cross 
square  triangle  circle  cross  square  triangle  cross  star 
square  circle  triangle  square  star  cross  triangle  star 

Now  do  likewise  with  these  forms  calling  them  by  their 
names  as  above. 


118  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 


When  you  have  gone  over  both,  repeat  the  experiment  in 
the  reverse  order  so  that  practice  and  fatigue  elements 
will  be  balanced  evenly  between  the  names  and  the  forms. 
We  call  this  the  "double  fatigue  order."  Try  the  experi- 
ment on  other  persons.  Average  the  results  in  seconds 
for  each  part  of  the  experiment,  that  is,  for  the  words  and 
the  forms  separately. 

It  will  be  found  that  the  forms  take  about,  twice  as 
long  as  the  words.  Individuals  differ  very  much  in  this 
exercise,  because  of  the  difference  in  amount  of  prac- 
tice. The  mental  state  also  makes  considerable  difference, 
the  forms  losing  more  with  confusion.  Three  adults 
tested  in  the  evening  when  they  were  somewhat  fatigued 
gave  an  average  of  23  seconds  for  the  words  and  of  65 
seconds  for  the  forms.  Practice  and  vigor  of  mind  re- 
duce the  difference;  fatigue  and  excitement  increase  it. 

Many  other  illustrations  could  be  found  to  show  strik- 
ingly as  this  experiment  does,  the  fact  that  much  prac- 
tice on  an  act  in  the  exact  setting  the  performance  is  to 
have  later  is  needed  for  speed  and  accuracy,  especially 
under  exciting  circumstances.  We  all  know  well  enough 
the  names  of  the  forms  here  used,  but  in  the  past  we  have 
not  often  spoken  or  thought  the  words  when  we  saw  the 
forms.  In  the  case  of  the  words  it  is  different;  we  do 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  119 

speak  or  think  the  names  when  we  see  the  words.  In 
the  latter  case,  then,  we  are  more  practiced  in  saying  the 
words ;  the  association  is  more  direct,  so  the  words  come 
to  us  with  greater  ease  and  rapidity.  The  nerve  im- 
pulses do  not  spread  so  much  and  bring  about  useless  acts, 
conflicts,  and  waste  of  energy.  Look  for  such  useless 
conflicting  acts  while  different  persons  are  going  through 
the  exercises,  and  note  the  difference  on  the  words  and 
the  forms.  When  thousands  of  people  are  operating  to- 
gether what  a  tremendous  difference  adequate  practice, 
or  well  trained  habits,  will  make  against  poorly  trained 
acts  !  The  difference  would  have  to  be  estimated  specific- 
ally for  various  kinds  of  acts  to  give  any  adequate 
conception.  Our  exercise  will  serve,  however,  to  bring 
home  the  value  of  well  trained  habits. 

Carelessness  regarding  the  perfection  of  habits  is 
often  one  of  the  main  causes  of  failure,  or  of  mediocre 
success.  Speaking  in  absolute  rather  than  in  relative 
terms  of  superficial  results,  one  may  say  that  learning  in- 
creases much  more  rapidly  at  first  on  any  problem  than  it 
does  later,  with  a  constant  degree  of  practice  daily.  To 
superficial  observation  there  is  enormous  increase  in  suc- 
cessive early  trials  compared  with  that  of  later  trials, 
especially  when  the  rate  of  learning  is  judged  by  the 
change  in  the  time  required  to  do  a  thing  or  by  the  num- 
ber of  errors  made.  Stated  generally,  learning  seems  to 
go  on  very  rapidly*  at  first  on  any  new  problem,  then  it 
gradually  slows  up  toward  a  "physiological  limit"  at 
which  point  there  is  no  further  apparent  gain.  Often 
there  occur  before  this  point  is  reached  plateaus  in  the 
learning  curve  during  the  continuance  of  which  there 

*That  the  view  of  rapid  initial  learning  is  based  on  a 
mathematical  fallacy,  as  the  writer  has  shown  elsewhere,  is 
unimportant  here,  as  the  learner  and  most  teachers  will  be  in- 
fluenced by  the  superficial  aspects  of  the  changes  they  note 
and  of  the  curves  indicating  the  learning.  See  the  writer's 
article,  "Experiments  in  Ball-Tossing:  The  Significance  of 
Learning  Curves,"  Jour.  Exper.  PsychoL,  1917,  2  178-224. 


120  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

seems  to  be  no  progress,  plateaus  which  may  tend  to  dis- 
couragement of  effort.  Again  considerable  progress  will 
suddenly  begin  to  show  itself,  often  without  adequate 
reasons,  but  especially  on  the  application  of  intense  effort 
directed  to  the  phase  of  the  learning  that  has  ceased  to 
show  progress. 

I  have  used  the  terms  "to  superficial  observation," 
"learning  seems  to  go  on,"  "apparent,"  etc.,  in  this  gen- 
eral statement  for  there  is  really  an  important  illusion 
underlying  the  whole  matter.  Plateaus  probably  mean 
that  progress  ceases  only  in  the  particular  phase  of  the 
learning  that  we  have  been  following,  and  physiological 
limits  do  not  really  mark  the  end  of  learning.  Effects 
of  practice  beyond  this  limit  of  noticeable  progress  can 
be  measured  in  indirect  ways,  for  example,  by  testing 
memory  or  rate  of  performance  some  time  later.  Learn- 
ing is  a  very  complex  process  and  we  should  not  hastily 
conclude  at  any  point  that  we  can  go  no  further.  This  is 
strikingly  brought  out  in  another  way  important  to  us  in 
the  present  connection.  The  differences  that  the  world 
rewards  are  really  differences  on  the  finer  points  of  tech- 
nique, differences  unobservable  to  the  superficial  view. 
Only  the  expert  can  see  the  superiority  of  the  very  best 
surgeon  over  the  one  of  fair  ability,  of  the  star  football 
player  over  the  ordinarily  good  player,  of  the  renowned 
scientist  over  the  good  scientist,  of  the  great  commander 
over  the  one  of  fair  ability  clothed  with  equal  authority. 
Somehow  the  small  differences  at  the  high  points  of  effi- 
ciency in  the  learning  process,  or  of  habits  acquired,  do 
bring  results,  and  these  results  seem  to  vary  inversely  with 
the  superficial,  or  more  apparent,  differences  in  the  habits 
as  ordinarily  judged. 

It  is  the  man  with  continuity,  who  stays  at  a  thing 
and  drives  away  day  after  day,  week  after  week,  even 
when  others  can  see  no  further  gains,  that  reaps  the  big 
reward.  He  finally  towers  out  of  the  realm  of  mere 
mediocrity  into  that  of  expertness,  where  the  rewards 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  121 

are  ample.  The  ordinary  man  gets  satisfied  too  easily, 
and  ceases  to  advance  further.  When  the  latter  sees  no 
further  immediate  progress  he  stops  and  says :  "It  doesn't 
pay  to  go  on  further."  Often  he  changes  to  other  things, 
stimulated  by  their  newness,  when  the  points  of  fine  dif- 
ferences and  slow  apparent  changes  in  what  he  is  learning 
are  reached,  and  so  never  becomes  expert  at  anything. 
The  world  does  not  ask  so  much,  "In  what  line  are  you 
working?"  as,  "How  far  beyond  the  point  ordinarily 
marked  good  have  you  gone  and  will  you  go  ?"  Surely  in 
the  complex  and  various  work  of  the  army  of  this  great 
democracy  it  will  pay  the  officer  to  work  beyond  limits 
of  ordinary  efficiency. 

Discipline,  as  a  condition  in  the  men  of  the  army,  may 
be  thought  of  as  a  result  of  habit  in  the  largest  sense,  in- 
cluding adaptation.  It  involves  not  only  ease  and  readi- 
ness and  efficiency  in  the  carrying  out  of  orders,  and  in 
the  performance  of  duties  generally,  but  also  endurance 
and  morale.  Teamplay  depends  on  discipline.  In  a  way, 
discipline  is  the  general  result  sought  by  the  various 
means  of  training  and  hardening  of  troops,  though  disci- 
pline itself  is  not  an  end;  its  own  end  is,  of  course,  vic- 
tory or  protection  of  country.  A  well  disciplined  army 
is  one  that  can  do  its  work  efficiently;  that  does  not 
become  seriously  disorganized  by  fear  and  other  emo- 
tional disturbances,  or  by  such  hardships  and  privation 
as  soldiers  are  liable  to  experience;  it  is  one  that  makes 
its  marches  and  its  attacks  and  defenses  with  as  little 
confusion  and  waste  of  effort  as  possible.  Well  disci- 
plined men  respond  instantaneously  and  whole-heartedly 
to  the  commands  of  the  leader  so  that  a  commander  can 
manipulate  the  entire  army  as,  from  his  information  of 
the  entire  situation,  he  finds  necessary.  Without  disci- 
pline "the  best  of  individual  soldiers  are  but  an  armed 
mob,  to  be  made  a  mockery  by  a  trained  foe."  "It  is  the 
very  essense  of  training,  and  springs  from  the  intelli- 
gence and  conscientious  work  of  the  leaders  who  must  in- 


122  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

spire  it,  or  whose  incompetence  will  render  its  attain- 
ment impossible.  It  is  what  makes  long  thorough  train- 
ing s'o  necessary,  what  makes  military  men  shudder  at  the 
thought  of  war  without  adequate  preparation."  (Lieut. 
Col.  Lincoln  Andrews,  Fundamentals  of  Military  Science, 
pp.  9  and  10.) 

Apparently  most  civilians  do  not  appreciate  fully  the 
need  of  thorough  emphasis  on  training  and  discipline. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  a  large  per  cent  of  the  new 
officers  and  the  men  in  the  army  were  recently  civilians. 
The  war  can  go  on  successfully  only  when  it  is  backed 
solidly  by  the  whole  nation.  Great  mistakes  are  some- 
times made  at  awful  expense  to  life  and  morale  by  the 
sending  of  undisciplined  men  into  action.  It  is  well 
known  in  science  that  the  scientific  or  research  attitude 
cannot  be  taken  on  suddenly ;  that  the  scientific  "method" 
of  procedure  cannot  be  formalized  and  given  over  to  a 
person  for  ready  use.  There  is  really  no  one  method  to 
it;  it  is  rather  a  characteristic  way  of  looking  at  nature 
and  of  understanding  and  controlling  its  processes,  an 
attitude  that  slowly  grows  upon  the  individual  and  re- 
quires acquaintance  with  apparatus.  Likewise  discipline 
in  the  army  involves  a  general  attitude  of  mind,  habitua- 
tion  and  actual  hardening  to  the  life  of  the  soldier,  and 
long  thorough  training  in  co-operative  and  properly  sub- 
ordinative  action.  Thorough  discipline  is  a  great  con- 
server  of  life  when  real  war  is  to  be  met. 

Discipline  is  therefore  not  a  mere  matter  of  habit 
and  of  endurance.  It  includes  the  whole  mental  attitude, 
and  can  exist  at  its  best  only  as  a  result  of  a  kind  of  train- 
ing that  has  spirit  and  purpose  as  distinct  from  mere  me- 
chanical drill.  Comparable  to  the  "will"  of  a  person, 
which  at  its  best  is  an  organization  and  direction  of  all 
one's  bodily  and  mental  resources,  discipline  in  the  army 
embodies  its  intelligence  and  emotional  tone  so  organized 
in  habit  and  teamplay  as  to  utilize  every  nerve>  muscle,  and 
the  instruments  of  war  in  the  most  effective  manner  for 


HABIT  AND  DISCIPLINE  123 

the  attainment  of  the  one  end — victory.  In  autocratic 
countries  discipline  is  characterized  by  harshness,  and 
often  by  brutal  treatment  of  the  soldier ;  in  modern  dem- 
ocracies such  methods  are  abandoned,  though  implicit 
obedience  to  the  commander  is  no  less  insisted  upon  as  a 
necessity  for  proper  teamplay.  But  the  view  is  that  brut- 
ality is  less  effective  (and  of  course  humanly  inexcusable) 
than  methods  incorporating  the  whole-souled  activity  and 
devotion  of  the  individual  soldier.  The  democratic 
method  reduces,  or  entirely  eliminates,  the  inner  conflict 
and  waste  brought  about  by  slight  inner  resistance  and 
opposition.  The  intelligent  soldier,  who  puts  his  own 
mind  and  individuality  into  his  acts  because  he  under- 
stands that  it  is  necessary  for  the  common  good,  is  far 
more  able,  has  greater  endurance  and  courage,  and  is  more 
trusty  in  emergencies  allowing  of  less  supervision  and 
requiring  individual  judgment,  than  is  the  ignorant  hire- 
ling or  the  soldier  driven  merely  by  external  compulsion 
and  threats.  Armies  of  well  organized  democracies  do 
not  take  advantage  of  their  commanders  in  conditions 
of  uncertainty,  and  they  do  not  "go  to  pieces"  and  become 
disorganized  into  petty  revolutions  and  counter  revolu- 
tions to  anything  like  the  extent  that  these  things  occur 
in  autocracies  using  compulsion  methods.  Yet  real  dis- 
cipline and  immediate  obedience  to  commands  is  just  as 
necessary  in  democracies,  but  the  motives  and  the  under- 
standing of  the  necessity  of  subordination  and  co-opera- 
tion are  entirely  different.  This  is  so  important  a  matter 
that  we  shall  have  to  devote  an  entire  chapter  to  the  men- 
tal attitude  known  as  loyalty.  It  is  obvious,  and  should 
be  impressed  upon  the  soldiers,  that  when  warfare  set- 
tles down  to  a  close  match  and  a  protracted  struggle  be- 
tween nations,  the  democracy  has  an  immense  chance  of 
outwearing  the  autocratic  enemy ;  for  in  the  former  case 
each  soldier  fights  for  the  common  good,  while  in  the  lat- 
ter it  is  usually  some  particular  individual  or  group  of  in- 
dividuals of  a  military  or  privileged  class  that  fights  for 


124  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

existence  at  the  expense  of  the  proletariat.  This  latter 
fact  is  of  course  always  disguised,  but  it  is  well  known 
that  moral  considerations,  freedom  of  the  press,  etc.  are 
important  weapons  in  the  hands  of  democracies. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

LOYALTY 

i 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  loyalty  or  pa- 
triotism and  most  every  one  has  a  fairly  clear  idea  as  to 
what  these  terms  mean.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is 
any  one  that  is  not  loyal  to  some  person  or  institution. 
Loyalty  to  country  is  undeveloped  in  the  case  of  persons 
who  are  more  or  less  transients  and  who  do  not  there- 
fore become  permanently  interested  in  any  particular 
place.  Other  individuals  who  have  lived  their  whole  lives 
in  certain  localities  may  become  very  much  attached  to 
such  places,  though  their  interest  in  other  parts  of  their 
own  country  may  not  be  marked.  Loyalty  to  country  is 
often  in  an  undeveloped  or  dormant  condition,  but  can 
be  aroused  or  awakened  in  every  one  of  normal  mental- 
ity under  the  proper  stimulating  conditions.  Naturally 
the  degree  of  loyalty  capable  of  being  aroused  in  differ- 
ent individuals  varies  somewhat  just  as  individual  re- 
actions and  ability  in  other  matters  vary;  but  the  point 
we  wish  to  make  here  is  that  loyalty  is  the  result  of  the 
proper  kind  of  environment  or  stimulation  acting  upon 
conditions  that  are  innate  in  each  of  us  and  that  it  be- 
comes incumbent  on  the  officer  training  his  men  to  arouse 
it  in  them. 

There  is  a  popular  view  that  the  majority  of  people 
do  not  possess  the  trait  of  loyalty,  a  view  that  does  not 
take  properly  into  consideration  the  fact  that  loyalty  is  a 
development  just  as  the  getting  of  an  education  or  the 
love  of  one's  neighbors  is  a  development,  dependent  upon 
a  number  of  conditions.  In  the  majority  of  persons 
loyalty  is  not  on  the  surface,  so  to  speak,  and  is  not  ex- 
pressed except  when  the  country  is  facing  some  crisis.  In 

125 


126  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

times  of  peace  we  often  hear  it  said  that  patriotism  of 
the  kind  that  we  read  about  is  a  lost  virtue,  that  the  citi- 
zens of  the  country  are  pursuing  pleasure  motives  and 
economic  ends  and  are  not  interested  in  the  larger  wel- 
fare of  the  nation  and  the  instilling  of  its  ideals  into 
the  minds  of  the  youth.  In  a  sense  this  is  of  course  true; 
national  unity  comes  only  at  its  best  when  the  citizens 
meet  common  danger  and  band  together  for  mutual  pro- 
tection, and  national  ideals  do  not  grow  out  of  a  hand-to- 
mouth  individualism,  but  let  the  country's  honor  be  chal- 
lenged or  its  safety  threatened  by  another  powerful  na- 
tion, or  let  the  lives  of  its  citizens  be  put  in  jeopardy  by 
unjust  encroachments  on  national  rights,  and  one  finds 
that  multitudes  of  eager  citizens  come  forth  patriotically 
to  express  their  indignation  and  to  offer  their  services 
and  lives  if  necessary. 

Some  of  the  citizens  of  foreign  nations  during  the 
first  years  of  the  present  war  assumed  that  America  was 
no  longer  characterized  by  the  patriotism  of  our  fore- 
fathers, the  founders  of  the  nation,  but  later  events  are 
showing  that  we  are  as  capable  now  of  devotion  to  dem- 
ocratic principles  and  as  willing  to  fight  for  national 
ideals  as  were  the  heroes  of  the  past.  We  are  now  seeing 
illustrated  the  principle  that  loyalty  to  a  country  is  best 
aroused  and  expresses  itself  most  strongly  in  times  of 
national  crisis. 

The  arousal  of  loyalty  constitutes  one  of  the  best 
means  of  stimulating  ah  individual  to  his  greatest  efforts. 
The  head  of  a  successful  business  house,  realizing  the 
importance  of  loyalty  in  his  employes,  leaves  no  stone  un- 
turned in  his  efforts  to  arouse  it  in  his  men.  Henry 
Ford,  Andrew  Carnegie  and  tke  late  James  J.  Hill  have 
all  shown  the  value  of  awakening  loyalty  among  their 
employes,  and  their  ability  in  doing  so  was  a  large  con- 
tributing factor  in  bringing  about  their  material  success. 
In  college  athletics  it  is  loyalty  to  his  team  and  school  that 
inspires  the  athlete  to  do  his  best  on  the  cinder  track  and 


LOYALTY  127 

the  gridiron ;  for  loyalty  calls  forth  the  best  there  is  in  a 
man  and  puts  his  heart  as  well  as  his  mind  into  his  work. 

No  officer  should  labor  under  the  delusion  that  every 
man  drafted  into  our  national  army  arrives  in  camp  im- 
bued with  loyalty  to  his  country.  It  is  true  that  many 
will  so  arrive,  probably  most  of  the  men,  but  some  will 
not,  and  in  the  latter  class  patriotism  or  loyalty  must  be 
developed.  Another  thing  the  officer  should  bear  in  mind 
is  that  with  some  men  loyalty  to  country  and  to  the  more 
abstract  ideals  of  democracy  is  not  easily  aroused;  it  is 
too  intangible.  For  such  persons  it  is  necessary  that  the 
object  of  their  devotion  or  their  loyalty  be  represented  in 
some  human  being,  the  leader.  The  successful  officer  will 
find  that  by  treating  these  men  considerately  they  will 
come  to  show  a  strong  feeling  of  loyalty  toward  him, 
which  by  the  proper  attitude  toward  his  work  he  in  turn 
can  transform  into  national  patriotism  and  the  larger 
devotion  to  the  cause  that  he  represents.  It  is  necessary 
therefore,  that  the  leader  at  least  have  the  larger  view  of 
justice  and  loyalty  and  then  he  can  make  this  ideal  con- 
crete in  his  own  life  for  those  soldiers  whose  minds  de- 
mand something  more  tangible  and  immediate.  It  is  not 
intended  by  this  statement  to  imply  that  a  large  per  cent 
of  the  American  soldiers  are  not  far  sighted  and  intelli- 
gent enough  to  be  genuinely  devoted  to  their  country  and 
to  the  ideals  of  democracy. 

ii 

Usually  we  make  the  mistake  of  thinking  of  men  as 
if  they  were  primarily  rational  beings.  But,  as  we  have 
already  pointed  out,  action  precedes  intelligence;  reason 
usually  grows  out  of  obstacles  to  activity.  Under  simple 
conditions  one  acts  readily  and  easily  on  the  basis  of  in- 
born tendencies  and  habits,  but  hesitancies  and  inner 
conflicts  arise  when  complexities  increase  and  one  is 
under  the  influence  of  several  stimulating  conditions. 
In  such  circumstances  it  is  natural  that  certain  factors 
will  be  somewhat  neglected  and  that  those  will  be  taken 


128  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

note  of  which  are  associated  most  closely  with  the  satis- 
faction of  life's  needs.  Most  people  think  very  little  of 
the  larger  possibilities  of  the  world  open  to  them  in  later 
years  of  their  lives  if  such  possibilities  are  prepared  for 
now,  but  settle  down  more  or  less  unreflectively  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  more  immediate  needs  and  the  fulfillment 
of  present  interests. 

Under  more  primitive  conditions  man  was  in  close 
contact  with  all  kinds  of  work  and  recreation.  His  in- 
stincts were  fashioned  under  relatively  simple  conditions 
affording  first-hand  contact  with  nature.  Social  life 
was  far  different  then  from  what  it  is  today.  Groups 
were  smaller  and  better  acquaintance  among  the  different 
members  of  the  group  was  possible.  All  members  of  the 
same  group  more  obviously  co-operated  for  the  common 
good,  and  the  work  of  each  more  closely  related  to  that  of 
others.  If  the  group  was  threatened  by  an  enemy,  the 
welfare  of  each  member  was  clearly  at  stake.  The  dan- 
ger was  usually  immediate,  so  much  so  that  powerful 
instincts  and  emotions,  as  fear  and  anger,  were  rather 
directly  aroused.  Who  would  not  fight  whole-heartedly 
and  to  his  utmost  limit  when  an  enemy  is  at  hand  threat- 
ening his  very  existence? 

These  conditions  have  changed  very  materially.  We 
need  not  go  into  details.  The  modern  civilized  world 
is  complex,  bewilderingly  complex.  Even  when  people 
are  in  their  homes  in  the  cities  they  often  are  very  ig- 
norant of  their  immediate  neighbors.  The  necessaries 
of  life  are  supplied  from  sources  so  various  and  so  in- 
directly known  that  enthusiasm  is  baulked  and  the  in- 
stinctive mechanism  is  baffled.  There  are  too  many  things 
to  attend  to ;  it  is  impossible  that  all  the  forms  of  work 
and  recreation  about  us  can  be  properly  evaluated  in 
their  respective  bearings  on  our  individual  welfares.  We 
lose  interest  in  them  and  accept  more  or  less  passively 
the  results  that  come  to  us.  A  similar  complexity  and  in- 
directness exists  in  warfare. 


LOYALTY  129 

But  no  person  is  in  fact  confronted  by  all  these  com- 
plexities. As  each  grows  up  from  childhood  he  natur- 
ally accepts  his  local  conditions' uncritically ;  he  plays  with 
children  whom  he  meets  and  in  such  places  as  come 
naturally  to  hand.  If  his  clothes  and  his  home  are  poor 
he  does  not  long  and  seek  for  better  ones,  because  the 
better  homes  hardly  come  within  his  experiences.  When 
he  is  hungry  he  eats  what  is  presented  to  him,  rejecting 
only  the  positively  distasteful.  When  weary  or  sick  he 
does  not  select  his  treatment  or  his  conditions  for  rest 
and  relaxation;  he  takes  what  is  given  and,  adapting  to 
these,  makes  the  best  of  them.  These  circumstances  if 
not  positively  intolerable  seem  natural  to  him.  When 
he  gets  older  he  falls  in  love  with  some  one  of  his  ac- 
quaintances, some  one  that  has  happened  to  stimulate 
and  develop  his  affections  when  their  underlying  in- 
stincts matured;  and  the  next  generation  begins.  The 
better  classes  have  a  wider  acquaintance  among  those  of 
their  own  station,  but  they  also  know  very  little  of  the 
world  into  which  they  are  born,  very  little  of  other  classes 
of  people  about  them  and  of  what  they  do  and  are  in- 
terested in.  So  man  is,  after  all,  in  the  main  a  creature 
of  his  more  immediate  circumstances ;  he  is  but  little 
affected  by  the  more  remote  possibilities  of  his  environ- 
ment. Individuals  and  institutions  that  satisfy  his  more 
direct  instinctive  needs  come  gradually  and  rather  un- 
consciously to  dominate  his  actions.  He  unreflectively 
associates  them  with  his  ambitions  and  projects  them  in 
his  ideals ;  for  ideals  grow  out  of  the  circumstances  that 
affect  us,  not  from  those  that  have  no  relation  to  the 
satisfaction  of  our  wants  or  to  the  expression  of  our 
instinctive  tendencies. 

In  great  nations  involving  specialized  social  condi- 
tions like  our  own  it  is  natural  that  class  interest  should 
be  strong,  and  that,  in  spite  of  our  public  school  sys- 
tem, persons  should  be  devoted  to  their  local  groups,  their 
co-laborers  and  vocational  associates  and  leaders.  Com- 


130  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

plexities  tend  to  put  a  damper  on  or  even  to  kill  enthus- 
iasm; nothing  is  simple,  direct,  and  definite.  Since  the 
real  motive  to  thought  and  action  is  the  satisfaction  of  in- 
stinctive needs,  men  naturally  become  selectively  inter- 
ested in  things  about  them ;  they  are  little  affected  by  mat- 
ters that  do  not  have  very  obvious  and  immediate  bear- 
ing on  their  welfare.  They  become  involved  in  partisan 
movements  and  class  interest  and  lose  sight  in  the  main 
of  the  larger  problems  that  confront  the  nation  and  of 
the  larger  ideals  of  the  race.  These  problems  are  grad- 
ually taken  up  by  men  who  are  more  or  less  specialists 
in  these  directions,  who  get  their  own  needs  supplied  by 
attending  to  these  matters.  It  is  a  mistake  to  regard 
these  partialities,  these  group  biases  and  limitations  of  in- 
terest, which  in  cases  of  inter-group  friction  so  easily  de- 
velop into  class  hostilities,  as  the  rational  decisions  of 
men.  They  are  merely  the  results  of  organic  adaptation 
to  circumstances,  of  the  association  of  instinctive  impulses 
and  feelings  with  the  conditions  that  afford  their  expres- 
sion and  development.  It  is  only  of  comparatively  recent 
date  that  even  educated  people  have  come  to  regard  them 
as  the  result  of  natural  adaptations  under  limited  oppor- 
tunities, and  not  the  results  of  deliberate  choice.  It  is 
not  recognized  as  a  rule  yet  that  when  once  these  group 
attitudes  have  developed,  it  is  futile  to  attempt  to  re- 
move them  by  argument.  Argument  and  compulsion  are 
the  more  direct  and  ready  means  of  meeting  such  condi- 
tions, but  it  is  now  getting  to  be  known  that  such  meth- 
ods only  consolidate  group  biases  and  embitter  one  class 
of  people  against  another.  A  person  may  be  given  good 
reasons  why  he  is  wrong,  only  to  be  aroused  to  greater 
activity  and  determination  to  disprove  the  position  of  his 
opponent  and  to  justify  himself.  Personality  and  self- 
assertion  will  not  down  so  obviously  and  directly;  such 
direct  methods  hurt  personal  pride.  In  opposition  from 
groups  of  equal,  if  not  superior  authority  men  will  some- 
times band  together  and  fight  to  the  finish,  just  to  main- 


LOYALTY  131 

tain  their  own  "rights."  Real  men,  whose  vision  and 
sympathies  circumstances  have  unfortunately  limited,  are 
more  apt  to  stand  by  their  guns  than  are  weaklings  even 
of  better  training;  and  a  soldier  cannot  but  admire  such 
a  stand,  which  is  nothing  but  loyalty  and  patriotism  with- 
out the  larger  knowledge,  the  sounder  judgment  and  the 
impartial  agencies  of  justice  that  direct  and  temper  loy- 
alty at  its  best.  Misdirected  loyalty  is, 'of  course,  only 
barbarism. 

Every  person  is  therefore  doubtless  loyal  and  patriotic 
to  something.  Individuals  differ  in  loyalty  on  the  whole 
because  their  circumstances  have  shaped  their  feelings  and 
their  views  differently.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  among 
all  classes  of  people  there  are  some  mere  opportunists, 
men  and  women  who  will  sacrifice  anything  for  narrow- 
ranged  and  individual  expediency ;  there  are  others  also— 
and  they  are  to  be  pitied — who  cannot  be  aroused  to  en- 
thusiasm by  any  cause  or  by  anything.  But  as  a  rule 
Americans  will  "stand  by  their  colors,"  even  though 
some  of  them  may  be  color-blind,  to  keep  to  the  figure, 
by  the  limitations  bf  their  experiences  and  opportunities. 

The  real  and  effective  remedy  to  misplaced  loyalty  is 
not  found  in  simply  telling  people  to  be  loyal  or  in  en- 
forcing certain  attitudes — though  the  compelling  of  re- 
spect and  of  compliance  with  the  common  program  is  at 
times  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  community  or 
nation.  The  effective  remedy  for  innocently  misplaced 
loyalty  lies  mainly  in  the  broadening  of  sympathies  and 
in  the  identification  of  interests  in  a  common  cause  such 
as  the  one  into  which  we  now  are  throwing  ourselves. 
Fortunately  when  loyalty  to  the  whole  country  is  most 
needed  there  is  also  the  best  opportunity  for  its  develop- 
ment in  the  mutual  co-operation  against  common  danger ; 
and  the  officer  in  the  army  who  trains  the  men  and  leads 
them  against  the  enemy  is  the  man  who  has  the  great- 
est opportunity  for  this  broadening  of  sympathies  and  de- 
velopment of  real  national  patriotism.  To  make  the  most 


132  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

of  his  enviable  opportunity  thus  to  train  America's  re- 
cruits from  all  the  walks  of  life  and  to  shape  their  loyal- 
ties to  a  greater  humanity,  he  must  not  only  be  much  of 
a  man  himself,  but  he  must  understand  something  of 
human  nature. 

If  all  the  citizens  of  a  great  nation  are  to  agree  on 
some  expressions  of  genuine  loyalty  there  must  be  de- 
veloped a  degree  of  idealism,  of  range  of  view.  Men 
must  be  taught  and  inspired  to  see  beyond  their  imme- 
diate needs  to  their  greater  opportunities  if  they  are  to 
stand  together  patriotically  against  severe  hardship  and 
sacrifice  for  the  common  good  of  all  classes  and  for  a 
better  humanity.  The  lack  of  such  vision  is  now  show- 
ing itself  in  the  wreck  of  Russia.  But  this  idealism  can- 
not be  forced  upon  a  people  of  individuality,  as  Ger- 
many cannot  force  her  Kultur  upon  the  democratic  world. 
It  must  be  an  outgrowth  of  common  action  and  of  inter- 
ests extended  to  include,  and  really  to  promise  ultimate 
benefit  to  all  minor  groups  and  classes.  The  general  at- 
titude of  the  leader  of  the  diverse  individualities  re- 
cruited into  the  army,  his  broad  interests,  his  personal 
sympathies,  and  his  great  respect  for  his  calling  and  en- 
thusiasm in  his  work  will  do  far  more  than  direct  instruc- 
tion can  accomplish.  It  is  the  attitude  of  sincerity  and 
enlightenment  that  counts  far  more  than  words.  The 
occupation  of  all  the  men  in  the  great  work  of  preparing 
for  the  defense  of  their  country — their  drills,  their  con- 
tests, games,  etc. — gradually  develop  common  sympath- 
ies and  ideals ;  conceptions  of  right  and  wrong,  of  good 
and  bad,  become  so  extended  as  to  allow  of  more  whole- 
hearted response  and  enthusiasm.  This  attitude  is  nec- 
essary in  the  teamplay  which  in  real  action  demands 
absolute  surrender  of  one's  energies  to  the  direction  of 
the  chief  comjnander  who  is  in  a  position  to  know  the 
situation  of  the  army  in  its  entirety.  Such  whole-souled 
devotion  and  surrender  to  the  country's  cause  is  pos- 
sible only  when  the  cause  is  regarded  as  just  and  in 


LOYALTY  133 

harmony  with  one's  best  conceptions  of  truth.  If  it 
is  not  so  regarded  there  are  bound  to  be  reservations 
and  inner  conflicts  on  the  part  of  individuals,  which 
will  greatly  impair  their  usefulness.  Who  could  en- 
ter enthusiastically  and  unconditionally  today  into  a 
move  that  he  feels  is  not  right  and  may  collapse  to- 
morrow? It  is  one's  conception  of  the  situation  and 
one's  faith  in  the  ultimate  outcome  of  a  country's 
cause  that  makes  loyalty  possible.  As  the  soundest 
morality  is  that  which  is  based  on  the  belief  that  it 
pays  in  the  large  to  be  moral,  so  the  most  unfailing 
loyalty  must  be  founded  on  faith  that  one's  country 
is  in  the  right. 

How  is  this  faith  best  instilled  into  the  mind  of  the 
soldier?  Justice,  right,  and  truth  may  be  regarded 
psychologically  as  principles  or  formulas  that  offer 
the  greatest  practical  consistency  of  action  for  all 
concerned.  We  cannot  divide  acts  absolutely  into 
good  or  bad.  These  are  relative  terms.  Professor 
Perry,  of  Harvard,  in  an  interesting  little  book  on 
morality,  has  put  it  thus :"....  the  moral  drama 
opens  only  when  interest  meets  interest ;  when  the 
path  of  one  unit  of  life  is  crossed  by  that  of  another. 
Every  interest  is  compelled  to  recognize  other  inter- 
ests, on  the  one  hand  as  parts  of  its  environment,  and 
on  the  other  hand  as  partners  in  the  general  enterprise 
of  life.  Thus  there  is  evolved  the  moral  ideal,  or  princi- 
ples of  action,  according  to  which  interest  allies  itself 
with  interest  in  order  to  be  free-handed  and  powerful 
against  the  common  hereditary  enemy,  the  heavy  inertia 
and  the  incessant  wear  of  the  cosmos.  Through  moral- 
ity a  plurality  of  interests  becomes  an  economy,  or  com- 
munity of  interests."  (The  Moral  Economy,  p.  13.) 
On  the  whole  that  is  right  which  offers  the  fullest  oppor- 
tunity of  life  to  all. 

How  do  we  come  to  a  consciousness  of  these  com- 
mon interests  ?  How  can  we  get  the  soldier  to  realize 


134  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

that  we  are  all  backing  him  in  the  great  sacrifice  that  he 
is  called  to  make?  In  democracies  we  are  frank,  in  the 
first  place,  to  acknowledge  that  no  person  is  in  himself 
infallible,  free  from  bias,  error,  and  incompleteness  of 
view.  As  we  have  seen,  our  activities  and  interests  in 
social  life  become  organized  about  certain  ends  and  or- 
ganic needs.  The  environment  is  so  complex  that  on 
every  hand  it  becomes  necessary  to  select  consciously  or 
unconsciously  that  which  makes  for  the  fulfillment  of 
our  individual  purposes  and  ends.  Selection,  and  there- 
fore partiality,  is  a  basic  principle  in  organic  adjustment, 
in  life  generally.  The  organism  reacts  selectively  to  food, 
for  instance.  In  the  larger  and  more  general  sense  cer- 
tain animals  are  born  to  be  herbivorous,  others  to  be  car- 
nivorous ;  more  specifically  each  organism  is  able  to  use 
and  thrive  upon  only  certain  kinds  of  food  material.  In- 
terest and  attention  in  other  realms  of  behavior  are  fur- 
ther expressions  of  selectiveness ;  imagination  and  dreams 
often  project  certain  inner  needs  and  desires.  Even 
reason  itself,  far  from  being  the  impartial  faculty  in  the 
determination  of  truth  or  in  the  balancing  of  evidence 
that  it  often  has  credit  of  being,  operates  for  the  attain- 
ment of  desired  ends,  and  justifies  them  when  attained. 
It  is,  unfortunately,  blind  enough  as  a  rule  to  unwelcome 
and  unpleasant  facts  and  conclusions.  Can  anyone  doubt 
that  a  frank  recognition  of  these  facts,  of  our  various 
biases,  makes  for  greater  tolerance  and  more  solid  de- 
votion to  the  cause  of  democracy? 

Satisfaction  of  our  organic  needs  and  instinctive  im- 
pulses becomes  associated  with  certain  kinds  of  activity 
and  with  certain  classes  or  groups  of  individuals  and  of 
institutions,  as  we  have  already  seen.  Adaptation  to 
these  conditions  and  to  their  various  local  standards 
makes  it  constantly  more  difficult  for  the  individual  to 
find  satisfaction  and  ease  of  orientation  under  changed 
conditions.  Anything  making  for  such  changes  is  looked 
upon  with  misgivings  or  suspicion,  or  even  opposed  out- 


LOYALTY  135 

right.  Whatever  alleged  fact  or  wherever  assertion  or 
view-point  favors  one's  own  peculiar  circumstances  and 
bias  is  generally  accepted  uncritically ;  there  is  no  motive 
generally  for  critical  examination  of  such  a  proposition 
or  assertion  unless  it  is  flatly  contradictory  to  and  irre- 
concilable with  the  bias. 

We  think  most  about  those  things  that  somehow  tend 
to  impede  or  to  aid  our  life's  activities ;  harmonious  im- 
pulses and  acts  soon  settle  down  to  mechanical,  often  un- 
conscious or  semi-conscious,  habits.  These  latter  seem 
to  be  the  eternally  fit  conditions,  to  question  which  would 
be  absurd  even  to  the  reflective  and  normally  honest  man. 
Bias  does  not  always — if  indeed  usually — imply  intel- 
lectual dishonesty.  It  is  altogether  less  conscious  and  re- 
flective, and  more  innocent,  than  such  an  attitude  of  de- 
ception requires.  Often  it  reflects  rather  only  a  naivete 
altogether  common  with  the  genus  homo.  Bias  grows 
upon  the  individual  so  naturally  and  so  gradually  that 
to  a  narrow  experience  anything  that  satisfies  the  organic 
and  immediate  social  needs,  is  simply  accepted  as  genuine. 
Rather,  the  individual  grows  out  of  the  narrow  bias  of  his 
hereditary  conditions  and  his  social  environment  only  un- 
der the  stress  of  inherently  conflicting  conditions.  Ideas 
and  theories  about  truth  and  error,  justice  and  injustice, 
arise  only  out  of  conflict  among  the  instinctive  impulses 
and  desires.  Bias  is  simply  an  organization  gradually 
forced  and  given  shape  by  external  conditions,  often  as 
unconsciously  formed  as  an  infant  learns  unwittingly  to 
manipulate  an  unwise  mother  or  nurse  by  its  crying. 
The  greater  demands  of  the  expanding  interests  simply 
wake  us  up  later  in  our  lives,  if  at  all,  to  the  numerous 
prejudices  in  which  nature  in  the  more  limited  environ- 
ment nourished  us. 

If  there  were  only  one  group  of  individuals  of  a  homo- 
geneous nature  no  rational  justification  would  be  neces- 
sary, and  little  progress  would  be  made.  .Who  thinks  of 
finding  moral  justifications  for  our  assumed  right  of  eat- 


136  '    HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

ing  cattle,  of  working  the  horse,  or  of  robbing  the  bee? 
On  these  practices  we  are  all  one.  But  since  different 
groups  under  different  conditions  of  life  vary  in  their 
practices  and  their  standards,  and  since  several  individ- 
uals through  commercial  and  other  relations  come  to  have 
membership  in  different  groups,  it  is  inevitable  that 
rational  justifications  for  actions  should  arise.  The  mere 
perception  by  one  person  of  the  standards  and  customs 
of  other  groups  different  from  those  of  his  own,  is  not 
sufficient  motivation  as  a  rule,  as  it  is  often  held  to  be, 
for  critical  reaction  to  the  foreign  group  practices.  The 
person  might  only  regard  such  customs  with  curiosity. 
But  when  various  individuals  through  commercial  rela- 
tions have  acquired  membership  in  both  groups  these  in- 
dividuals  will  be  forced  to  choose  for  themselves  when 
conflict  arises  between  their  own  groups.  They  cannot 
habitually  and  automatically  follow  both  at  points  of  di- 
vergence. Under  such  conditions,  therefore,  there  is  real 
motivation  to  rationalization  of  conduct,  to  the  building 
of  standards  and  ideals  of  a  more  comprehensive  nature. 
Thus  criticism  of  certain  groups  and  justification  of 
others  inevitably  arise ;  reasons  for  various  practices  and 
justifications  of  existing  conditions  are  worked  out  as 
necessity  demands.  Inner  conflicts,  inter-group  difficul- 
ties and  maladjustments,  lead  to  similar  results.  They 
usually  arise  from  individual  differences  and  specializa- 
tions of  function.  Very  fitting  and  convincing  explana- 
tions of  existing  conditions  are  thus  developed,  fitting  and 
satisfying  because  they  justify  things  as  they  are.  Thus 
the  points  of  view  and  biases  of  groups  become  estab- 
lished around  local  needs  and  conditions.  They  are  con- 
solidated into  national  ideals  and  loyalty  only  through 
conflicts  among  themselves  and  particularly  with  other 
nations,  the  latter  consolidating  all  groups  more  or  less 
completely  against  the  foreign  foe. 

But  while  the  masses  of  men  are  not  much  given  to 
the  guidance  of  conduct  by  ideals,  except  those  arising 


LOYALTY  137 

from  practical  necessities,  scientific  agencies  and  more  im- 
partial institutions  of  various  kinds  are  constantly  com- 
ing to  play  an  ever  increasing  role  in  the  selection  and  the 
testing  of  standards.  These  larger  impersonal  agencies, 
themselves  at  first  developing  out  of  incidental  conflict 
and  necessity,  are  ribw  getting  gradually  to  assume  the 
definite  role  of  explicit  agencies  for  fostering  progress; 
the  discovery  of  truth,  as  we  have  defined  it,  and  the  set- 
ting up  of  new  standards  is  getting  to  be  their  conscious 
object.  This  far-reaching  idealism,  this  large  optimistic 
atmosphere  and  outlook,  should  be  made  to  play  as  di- 
dectly  as  possible  on  the  man  who  must  go  into  the  war 
and  offer  his  life  for  his  country.  If  he  is  not  lifted 
above  the  mere  class  interest  with  which  he  was  probably 
too  much  concerned  before  the  call  of  his  country,  he 
cannot  be  relieved  of  inner  strains  and  reservations  which 
are  bound  to  interfere  with  the  unconditioned  surrender- 
ing of  himself  to  the  greater  cause.  To  become  the  best 
soldier  he  must  get  the  feeling  of  satisfaction  in  the  great 
cause  itself  that  the  religious  missionary  has  or  that  char- 
acterizes the  person  at  play,  as  we  have  already  seen. 

The  value  of  an  appreciation  of  governmental  and 
scientific  agencies  by  all  individuals  taking  part  in  great 
group,  business,  or  national  enterprise  is  obvious;  their 
stabilizing  and  idealizing  effect  upon  conduct,  with  its 
ever  widening  atmosphere,  is  one  of  our  best  guarantees 
— if  we  may  talk  in  these  days  of  guarantees — of  the  final 
reign  of  democracy  and  objectified  justice.  Just  as  the 
courts  have  come  to  serve  as  state  agencies  for  the  impar- 
tial handling  of  individual  disputes  and  personal  differ- 
ences for  the  common  good,  so  science  and  other  large  im- 
personal agencies  are  getting  to  play  an  ever  increasingly 
constructive  role  in  the  determination  of  means,  stand- 
ards and  ideals  for  the  attainment  of  the  greatest  develop- 
ment of  individual  interests  compatible  with  the  common 
weal.  The  function  of  these  impersonal  agencies  is  not 
only  that  of  making  harmony  among  men's  conflicting 


138  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

impulses  and  group  interests  or  biases ;  it  is  far  more  posi- 
tive and  constructive  than  this.  Progress  and  greater 
fullness  of  life  become  the  conscious  ideal,  and  enthu- 
siasm and  co-operative  effort  for  the  attainment  of  justice, 
in  the  more  nearly  abstract  or  impartial  sense  of  the  term, 
are  the  results  to  those  who  understand  their  relations 
to  such  activities. 

Soldiers  should  constantly  be  kept  aware  of  these  re- 
lations to  the  larger  unbiased  agencies  of  the  nation  they 
serve.  Many  of  the  men  that  enter  the  army  have  not 
had  opportunities  of  very  close  acquaintance  with  these 
governmental  agencies.  The  most  immediate  contact 
they  have  with  any  such  agency  in  the  army  is  the  court 
martial.  The  exigencies  of  army  life  are  such  as  to  make 
this  agency  of  impartial  evaluation  at  best  but  an  im- 
perfect representative  of  the  class  taken  as  a  whole.  The 
various  agencies  for  the  finding  and  evaluating  of  scien- 
tific truth,  both  public  and  private  educational  and  sci- 
entific institutions,  are  among  the  most  efficient.  The  sol- 
dier to  be  most  satisfied  must  feel  that  he  is  fighting  in  a 
righteous  and  laudable  cause ;  that  he  is  offering  his  life 
not  for  a  mere  temporary  circumstance,  bias  or  madness, 
but  that  his  life  is  given  if  necessary  for  a  great  cause  of 
permanent  value  to  the  nation  and  to  humanity.  Only 
such  an  assurance  can  give  him  the  backing  and  deter- 
mination that  can  call  out  his  very  greatest  efforts,  sacri- 
fices and  endurance.  He  must  be  made  to  know  that  the 
people  of  his  democracy  and  the  various  impersonal  agen- 
cies engaged  in  improving  the  life  of  man  are  solidly  be- 
hind him;  his  cause,  then,  becomes  identified  with  that 
of  great  statesmen,  scientists,  educators,  and  specialists 
and  workers  in  all  lines  supplying  food,  clothes,  raw  ma- 
terials, munitions,  protection  from  disease  and  pain  and 
other  disasters.  He  must  see  himself,  to  be  a  good  fight- 
er, as  a  part  of  the  great  move  by  his  race  for  a  bigger 
and  better  humanity.  And  his  part  is  by  no  means  a 
mean  one :  his  life  is  on  the  altar ;  he  may  not  live  to  the 


LOYALTY  139 

attainment  of  the  great  end  for  which  he  is  fighting. 
He  must  learn  to  be  proud  of  being  a  soldier,  of  being 
called  by  a  great  democratic  nation,  exercising  impartial 
means  of  selection,  to  do  his  "bit."  This  just  pride 
should  show  itself  in  a  general  bearing  of  courage  and 
optimistic  co-operation;  it  expresses  itself  in  his  erect, 
manly  attitude,  his  salutes,  etc.  Mere  formalities  which 
otherwise  may  have  a  tendency  to  arouse  opposition,  or  at 
least  passivity  and  lack  of  enthusiasm,  easily  become  in 
the  hands  of  the  good  leader  and  army  teacher  effective 
means  of  stimulating  the  men  to  enthusiasm.  They 
symbolize  something  and  serve  as  constant  reminders. 

As  the  man  who  believes  that  moralty  "pays  as  it 
goes"  is  probably  more  effectively  braced  against  evil 
than  he  who  is  moral  because  of  some  mere  abstract  and 
absolute  conception  of  truth,  so  an  understanding  by  all 
concerned  of  the  means  and  ideals  under-lying  a  great 
war  is  necessary  for  the  proper  motivation  and  control 
of  those  taking  part  in  it.  Persistency  of  effort  toward 
the  attainment  of  great  national  and  international  ideals, 
and  proper  discipline  and  sense  of  duty  to  the  common 
cause,  are  safely  secured  only  on  such  an  intelligent  ap- 
preciation of  affairs.  All  cannot,  of  course,  have  a  thor- 
ough knowledge  and  appreciation  of  such  matters,  but 
the  better  the  soldier  understands  them  the  better  a  sol- 
dier he  will  be.  Managers  and  leaders  of  men,  where 
such  knowledge  and  appreciation  is  widely  current,  as- 
sume the  aspect  of  fellow  workers ;  they  are  respected 
and  obeyed  cheerfully  as  representatives  of  the  common 
interests,  rather  than  being  feared  and  hated  as  arbitrary, 
self-seeking  individuals  of  the  type  that  must  drive  and 
force  men  against  their  own  wills.  The  effective  will  is 
the  whole  man  active,  not  a  part  of  him. 

Among  officers  the  matter  of  promotion  is  probably  a 
"touchy"  point.  Frequently  promotion  is  based  merely 
on  priority.  In  the  past  in  many  nations  this  has  been 
almost  the  rule.  In  the  present  war  there  is  a  tendency 


140  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

in  the  democracies  to  urge  the  criterion  of  efficiency  as 
the  basis  for  promotions.  This  is,  of  course,  from  all 
points  of  view  the  proper  thing,  for  efficiency  is  what 
must  "win  the  war."  Hence  we  are  all  interested  in  it, 
and  no  one,  not  even  the  inefficient  officer  of  priority 
right,  will  dispute  the  right  of  the  efficient  man  to  step 
forward.  Questioning  such  a  right  directly  would  only 
be  tantamount  to  showing  lack  of  patriotism,  or  to  mani- 
festing an  unwillingness  to  co-operate  for  the  common 
good.  Hence  objections  to  what  is  done  in  the  way  of 
promoting  on  this  criterion  will  always  take  other  forms 
than  direct  objections  to  the  principle.  Claims  based  in 
fact  on  priority  will  ostensibly  take  other  forms,  usually 
attacks  on  the  alleged  efficiency  of  rivals  for  promotion. 
This  becomes  a  delicate  question,  and  all  concerned  should 
constrain  themselves  not  to  be  too  impatient  for  frequent 
changes  based  on  efficiency;  for  the  judgment  of  effi- 
ciency is  not  an  easy  one  to  make  when  all  things  are 
considered;  efficiency  cannot  everywhere  be  discovered 
with  great  speed.  At  the  same  time  the  public  will  not 
be  likely  to  tolerate  passively  any  gross  violations  of  the 
efficiency  rule,  so  far  as  matters  come  fairly  to  their  at- 
tention. The  army  tests  and  other  means  will  help  select 
the  efficient,  but  the  great  test  of  efficiency  must  always 
be  in  one's  actual  service.  A  person  should  not  be  too 
ready  to  put  himself  up  impatiently  for  advancement, 
even  in  his  own  secret  estimation,  for  this  will  tend  to 
react  negatively  on  his  optimism  and  general  co-operative 
tone ;  the  dissatisfied,  disgruntled  officer  or  soldier  works 
against  his  own  interests  and  opportunities  as  well  as 
against  the  efficiency  of  his  country.  The  good  soldier 
and  officer,  the  trustworthy  person,  is  the  one  above  all 
that  can  wait,  and  that  will  wait  cheerfully,  for  the  pro- 
motion that  he  has  really  earned ;  a  slight  delay,  especially 
under  the  circumstances  indicated,  does  not  make  him 
impatient  or  grouchy,  for  he  realizes  that  self-control 
has  every  advantage  in  the  end,  and  he  has  faith  in  the 


LOYALTY  141 

workings  of  democracy  with  all  its  present  shortcomings. 
Something  is  wrong  with  the  person  who  always  finds  the 
cause  of  his  own  misfortunes  and  failure  of  recognition 
in  surrounding  conditions  and  in  other  persons  rather 
than  in  himself.  One's  fellows  will  not  long  fail  to  recog- 
nize and  reward  tangibly  real  efficiency  coupled  with 
cheerful  patience  and  co-operation. 

Loyalty  is  nothing  short  of  intelligent,  whole-hearted 
devotion  to  a  common  cause  or  a  common  interest,  such 
as  one's  country.  We  are  loyal  to  that  into  which  we  can 
throw  ourselves  without  hesitancy  or  reservations.  The 
late  Professor  Royce  of  Harvard,  in  a  book  entitled  The 
Philosophy  of  Loyalty,  defines  loyalty  as  "the  willing  and 
practical  and  thoroughgoing  devotion  of  a  person  to  a 
cause/'  or  to  a  moral  embodying  the  common  good.  We 
cannot  follow  him  when  he  takes  this  end  into  the  realms 
of  ultimate  truth  or  of  "the  eternal" ;  but  there  is  much  in 
the  value,  as  he  indicates,  of  the  personal  attitude  of  loy- 
alty, giving  one  a  cause  that  unifies  one's  interests  and 
impulses  and  that  is  in  some  senses  self-sufficient  and 
complete,  as  we  have  said  is  true  of  the  attitude  in  play 
and  in  art. 

Local  patriotism  that  says,  "My  country,  right  or 
wrong !"  will  never  end  wars  in  the  world.  The  cause  of 
democracy  against  autocracy  must  not  be  confounded 
with  such  a  view.  Loyalty  to  the  present  great  struggle 
of  democratic  peoples  cannot  be  based  on  any  temporary 
bias  or  present  group  interest;  this  war  is  a  struggle  of 
nations.  It  has  already  involved  the  scientific  genius  and 
the  educational  and  research  institutions  and  agencies  of 
all  the  Allies.  America  is  in  it  with  all  her  resources, — 
her  agencies  of  science  and  medicine,  of  justice  and  ad- 
ministration, of  economic  distribution  and  social  welfare, 
all  mobilized  for  the  one  end  of  "making  the  world  safe 
for  democracy."  We  are  all  in  it  with  all  the  civilization 
that  our  race  has  evolved ;  we  are  bent  on  protecting  this 
civilization  and  on  passing  it  on,  with  the  addition  of  our 


142  HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 

own  humble  contributions,  to  our  descendants.  The  sol- 
dier can  feel  that  there  are  no  sinister  secrets  to  come 
out  of  this  conflict,  no  concealed  individual  advantages 
over  others  to  be  gained  by  those  who  are  clothed  with 
the  authority  to  manage  it.  The  leading  educational  in- 
stitutions are  putting  their  entire  resources  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  nation,  research  laboratories  are  doing  their 
best  to  further  the  cause,  judicial  experts  are  favoring 
the  submission  of  peace  terms,  when  the  time  comes,  to 
the  various  nationalities  affected,  and  there  is  a  general 
cry  against  secret  treaties  and  the  violation  of  contracts. 
The  world  has  never  before  seen  a  similar  situation. 

Here  are  real  grounds  for  loyalty  that  transcends 
mistaken  local  patriotism  and  temporary  bias.  Here  is  a 
situation  that  can  call  out  all  man's  energies  and  finer  sen- 
sibilities. In  this  great  struggle  the  soldier  is  at  his  best. 
He  is  the  center  of  interest.  If  he  should  be  called  upon 
to  give  his  life  for  freedom  and  justice — the  ideals  of 
democracy — he  can  feel  that  never  has  man  come  to  a 
better  opportunity  for  this  supreme  sacrifice  nor  has  the 
soldier  ever  had  a  more  enthusiastic  and  just  world  to  per- 
petuate his  name  and  deed. 


INDEX 


Abstract  ideals  often  less  ef- 
fective than  personal  appeals, 
81. 

Andrews,  Lt.  Col.,  quoted  on 
leadership,  82;  on  discipline, 
110,  121  f, 

Argument  futile  against  bias, 
130. 

Athletics  in  army  camps  have 
purpose,  50 ;  specialized  meth- 
ods of  training  in,  89. 

Attention,  results  of  selective- 
ness  of,  60;  to  individuals 
improves  teamplay,  70;  in 
learning,  98,  101,  115;  to 
larger  relationships  of  acts 
to  be  learned,  103. 

Attitude,  effect  of  on  learning, 
98;  on  loyalty,  138;  progres- 
sive characterized,  17,  102. 

Authority,  relations  of  to  lead- 
ership, 79 ff. 

Automatic  processes  provided 
by  nature,  6ff. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  quoted  on  so- 
cializing effect  of  play,  41/. 

Bell,  Gen.  Geo.,  Jr.,  quoted  on 
discipline,  2;  on  teamplay, 
67;  on  handling  men,  87;  on 
putting  meaning  into  learn- 
ing, 104/. 

Bias,  nature  and  cause  of,  129^. 
Blaming  others   for  own  fail- 
ures, evils  of,  16. 
Bravado  in  the  war,  57/. 

British  leaders,  qualities  of, 
73/. 


Competition  in  industries,  sci- 
ence, athletics,  etc.,  18  ff.; 
biology  of,  21  ff.;  among 
groups,  24 ff.;  Hadley's  defi- 
nition of,  26;  stimulation  of, 
27 ff.;  need  of  objective, 
measurable  results  and  of 
purpose  in,  30/.;  perform- 
ance scales  in,  suggested,  30; 
use  of  in  army,  19,  27-37. 

Conduct,  how  standards  of, 
arise,  134ff. 

Control,  getting,  of  new  acts, 
94ff.,  113;  an  experiment  on 
getting,  of  complex  act,  114. 

Cooley,  C.  H.,  quoted  on  lead- 
ership, 76,  77. 

Courage,  rational  form  of,  in 
the  war,  57  /. 

Coy,  Ted,  and  the  Yale  foot- 
ball victory,  73. 

Criticism,  pointed,  how  to  make 
effective,  15/. 

Cromwell,  as  leader,  72. 

Crosby,  Col.  N.  B.,  quoted  on 
effects  of  competition,  32-36. 

Curves  of  progress  in  learn- 
ing, 119. 

Defectiveness,  mental,  as  inco- 
ordination,  53^. 

Determinism,  practical,  as  an 
assumption,  13/. 

Discipline,  the  necessity  of, 
Iff;  110 ff.;  122 ff.;  Gen.  Geo. 
Bell,  Jr.,  on,  2ff.;  and  habit, 
llOff.;  defined,  110,  121  f.;  a 
conserver  of  life,  122, 


144 


HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 


Drafted  men,  need  of  arousing 
right  attitude  in,  5/. 

Drills,  mere  formal,  inadequate 
to  teamplay,  68;  the  distribu- 
tion of  practice  in,  97 f.;  at- 
tention to  the  function  of  an 
act  in,  98;  vigor  and  snap, 
in,  84. 

Efficiency  vs.  number  of  men, 
4;  in  terms  of  co-ordination, 
53 ff.;  as  basis  of  promotion 
in  army,  26,  139 f. 

Effort,  need  of  on  part  of 
learner,  115. 

Emotion,  arousal  of,  by  ob- 
struction of  instincts,  7;  in 
wars  by  primitive  man,  128. 

Emulation,  used  by  Jesuits,  18 ; 
relation  to  competition,  24/. 

Encouragements,  how  best  giv- 
en, 15/. 

Envy,  relation  to  competition, 
24. 

Favoritism  and  familiarity 
harmful  to  leadership,  80. 

Ferrari,  on  teamplay,  courage 
and  bravado,  57f. 

Foote,  Brig.  Gen.  S.  M.,  quoted 
on  need  of  self-responsibil- 
ity, 36/.;  on  teamplay,  68. 

French  officers,  84. 

Games,  competition  in,  44^. 

Getty,  Brig.  Gen.  R.  N.,  men- 
tioned, 32. 

Grading  a  few  men  each  day, 
28. 

Grant  as  a  leader.  79. 

Groos  on  play,  44. 

Group  competition,  24^.;  44. 

Habit,  and  discipline,  110^.;  in 
athletics,  111;  an  experiment 
on  effect  of,  117/.;  may  lapse 
into  earlier  stages  in  confu- 
sion and  excitement,  116  ff.; 
rewards  for  highly  trained, 
119 ff. 

Habits,  characteristics  of,  12, 
96. 

Hadley,  Pres.,  of  Yale,  on  com- 
petition. 26. 


Illustration,  the  value  of,  in 
teaching,  90,  105. 

Impersonal  agencies  to  decide 
basis  of  loyalty,  137. 

Inefficiency,  effect  of,  on  team- 
play,  62. 

Individual  differences  in  re- 
cruits, problems  based  on. 
5/.;  taken  note  of  in  certain 
industries,  88;  in  instruction, 

100,  105. 

Individuality  in  teamplay,  59; 
respected  by  good  leaders, 
81. 

Initiative,  individual,  in  army, 
W6ff. 

Innate  mechanisms  to  care  for 
our  life  processes,  6ff. 

Instinct,  defined,  8,  10;  orig- 
in of,  10^.;  modifiability  of, 
10/.;  the  basis  of  all  appeals, 
11-13;  as  a  driving  force  in 
our  lives,  13. 

Instincts  enumerated,  8;  dom- 
inance of  our  lives  by,  llf. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  as  leader,  72. 

James,  Prof.  W.,  referred  to, 
8,  18;  quoted  on  instincts, 
11. 

Jealousy,  24. 

Jesuits  and  emulation,  18. 

Kahamamoka,  Duke,  lowers 
world's  swimming  record  un- 
der pressure  of  competition, 
19/. 

Kemp,  Major,  quoted  on  spe- 
cialized training  for  war,  109. 

Knowledge  essential  to  leader- 
ship, 76/.;  82. 

Leader  identifies  self  with 
group,  IS/.;  responsible  for 
morale  of  group,  15/.;  his 
opportunity  and  responsibil- 
ity in  teamplay,  6Qff.;  Cooley 
quoted  on,  76,  77/.;  Grant  as, 
refined  and  considerate,  79; 
must  be  just  and  impartial, 
84/.;  self-control  of,  85. 


INDEX 


145 


Leaders  in  commerce,  72. 

Leadership,  75ff.;  relations  to 
practical  knowledge  of  in- 
stincts, 13/.;  in  industry  pol- 
itics, and  athletics,  72/.;  Lt. 
Perigord  quoted  on,  73;  re- 
lations to  authority,  79/.;  in- 
sincerity fatal  to,  78;  de- 
pends on  knowledge  and  con- 
sistency of  action,  77^.,  102; 
and  popularity,  S2ff. 

Learning,  principles  of,  88^.; 
individual  differences  in,  88, 
100/.;  106  ff.;  115 f.;  relation 
to  accurate  estimate  of  re- 
sults of  efforts,  89/;  99;  two 
general  classes  of,  93  ff.;  in- 
terest necessary  for,  98.  104; 
distribution  of  practice  most 
effective  for,  98 ;  not  by  mere 
repetition  but  by  selection, 
96,  106;  dangers  of  wrong 
beginning  in,  101 ;  successes 
to  be  emphasized  rather 
than  errors,  106;  quotations 
from  officers  on,  106-109. 

Loyalty,  125^.;  at  its  best,  26; 
indirect  method  of  bringing 
it  about,  64,  13 1/.;  why  it  is 
not  usually  obvious  in  peace 
times,  12Sff.;  expressed  in 
crises,  126;  personal  success 
due  to  its  arousal  in  employ- 
es, 126;  developed  through 
interests,  133#.;  Royce 
quoted  on,  141 ;  rests  on  idea 
of  right,  132ff. 

McCoy.  Major  F.  R.,  on  ath- 
letic competition,  50;  on 
teamplay,  65 ff.;  on  leader- 
ship, 86/.;  on  specialized 
training,  109. 

McDougall,  W.,  referred  to,  8. 

Meaning  of  thing  learned,  need 
of  pointing  out,  105. 

Mental  attitude,  importance  of 
5,  98. 

Mental  tests  to  eliminate  the 
unfit,  62. 


Motives  to  learning  necessary, 
92 ;  in  animal  learning,  94. 

Nagging,  effects  of,  85. 

Napoleon  as  leader,  72. 

National  unity,  lack  of,  before 
war,  1. 

Nature's  provision  for  bodily 
needs,  6. 

Officers,  qualities  of  English 
and  French,  84 ;  means  of  in- 
creasing opportunities  of 
progress  of,  102. 

Orders,  the  giving  of,  81,  85; 
must  be  promptly  carried  out, 
86;  Major  McCoy  on  the 
giving  of,  86. 

Partisan  interests,  origin  of, 
134ff. 

Patch  Dan,  the  pacer,  stum- 
ulated  by  competition,  20. 

Patriotism  not  to  be  confound- 
ed with  selfishness,  141; 
meaning  of,  to  democracies, 
141/. 

Perigord,  Lt.  Paul,  quoted  on 
leadership,  73. 

Perry,  Professor,  quoted  on 
morality,  133. 

Persistence,  reward  of,  120/. 

Personality  defined,  74,  78. 

Personalities,  unpleasant,  ruled 
out  in  group  competition,  25. 

Play,  38ff.;  value  of  in  the  in- 
dustries, 38/.;  in  Roosevelt's 
daily  program,  40;  innate  in 
man  and  animals,  41 ;  vari- 
ous benefits  of,  in  training 
and  self-control,  44^.;  re- 
laxation and  other  psychic  ef- 
fects of,  43,  46 ;  prepares  for 
life's  struggle,  43^.;  a  pro- 
phylactic against  certain  men- 
tal diseases,  46-49;  is  self- 
sufficient,  real  life,  47/.;  in 
army  camps,  quotations,  49/. 

Pleasure-pain  theory  of  action 
criticised,  7ff. 


146 


HANDLING  MEN  IN  THE  ARMY 


Popularity  of  leader,  82. 

Practice,  much,  necessary  for 
effective  teamplay,  62. 

Promotion  of  officers  in  army, 
relations  to  loyalty,  26/., 
139/. 

Psychological  factors,  impor- 
tance of,  in  war,  61. 

Pugnacity  in  competition.  23/. 

Punishment,  mild,  skillfully 
applied,  16. 

Random,  unco-ordinated  move- 
ments in  new  acts,  94/.;  what 
to  do  with  them,  97. 

Recruits  in  the  army,  nature 
of,  Aff. 

Repetition,  effect  of,  on  re- 
sponse, 117/. 

Responsibility,  assumption  of, 
by  officer,  18/.;  of  training 
men  under  one's  own  com- 
mand, 103 ;  individual,  rec- 
ognized in  army,  106  ff. 

Restrictions  on  individuality  in 
group  competition,  25/. 

Rewards,  effect  of,  on  rate  of 
training  men,  5. 

Rivalry  instinct  in  competition, 
24ff. 

Roosevelt's  recreation  habits 
referred  to,  40. 

Royce  on  loyalty,  141. 

Salute,  the,  putting  meaning 
into,  104. 

Seashore,  E.  C,  quoted  on  play, 
47. 

Self-responsibility,  value  of 
frank  acknowledgment  of, 
15;  need  of  developing,  in 
soldier,  36/. 

Self-assertion  impulses  in  com- 
petition, 24^. 

Self-good,  remote,  skillfully 
identified  with  common  good 
by  leader,  81. 

Sheridan's  ride,  an  example  of 
effect  of  leadership,  72. 


Sherman,  Gen.,  quoted  on  dis- 
cipline, 110. 

Soldier's  attitude  depends  on 
his  conception  of  his  calling, 
138/. 

Standards  for  competition, 
value  of,  30. 

Successful  trials  to  be  em- 
phasized in  learning,  106. 

Teamplay,  51^.;  importance  of 
emphasizing,  51 ;  Lt.  Col. 
Andrews  quoted  on,  5 1/.;  in 
football,  etc.,  52 ;  in  the  great 
industries,  52/.;  a  chief  fac- 
tor for  success  in  group  con- 
tests, 56/.;  demand  for  self- 
surrender  in,  57;  Ferrari  on, 
57;  opportunity  of  leader  in, 
60^.;  hampered  by  inefficien- 
cy and  unwillingness,  62/.; 
practical  suggestions  for  im- 
proving, 65ff. 

Thought  concerned  about 
things  to  do,  12;  grows  out 
of  conflicts  among  instincts, 
12. 

Training,  the  importance  of, 
Iff.;  needs  of  special  atten- 
tion to  methods  of,  today, 
4;  effects  on,  of  high  re- 
wards and  good  native  ability 
and  education,  5 ;  necessary 
to  prevent  confusion  under 
emotional  excitement,  12 ; 
methods  of,  in  athletics  and 
in  education,  89/. ;  necessity 
of,  in  situation  similar  to  that 
trained  for,  105. 

Truth,  love  of  abstract,  ques- 
tioned, 18/. 

United     States    in    commerce, 

Iff. 

Weakness,  evidence  of,  in  the 

leader,  16. 
Whole-souled    effort   in    good 

discipline,  123. 

Will  to  learn,  effect  of,  96,  105. 
Wilson,  Pres.,  referred  to,  53. 
Woodworth  quoted  on  courage, 

57/. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


R£7'vJ£N£D  TO 


MAR  2  3  1971 


LOAN  DEPARTMENT 


SANTA  BARBARA 


lOAN 


•ived  in  intfirlihrary  loan 


MOV  2  8 1983 


JUN  1  9  1996 


IEtlOFFITT.Wl7'96 


LD21A-50m-2,'71 
(P2001slO)476 — A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


U.  C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


383078 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


